Long-Term English Language Learner Project
Annotated Bibliography
Many people think of an English Language Learner (ELL) as a child who speaks little English and who has arrived to the country within the last few years. This assumption is held by both educators and non-educators alike. In fact, most of the literature on ELLs focuses on this group of students. However, a large and growing number of adolescent ELLs have been in the country for several years, with some having been born in the United States. This subpopulation of ELLs, defined as ELLs who have been receiving ESL or bilingual services for seven or more years are known as Long-Term ELLs (LTELLs). These students have oftentimes mastered oral communication and typically pass as native speakers of English. Nevertheless, they struggle in school because of a lack of opportunity to master academic language in either English or their native language. The difficulties they experience often lead to disengagement and eventual dropout for many of these students.
This annotated bibliography is meant to be a resource for education researchers, policymakers, administrators, and teachers who are interested in better meeting the needs of LTELLs. The sources were gathered through a search of various electronic databases such as ERIC. Because of the lack of systematic research done on this population it was necessary to extend the search beyond the key phrase “Long-Term English Language Learners,” as so few articles or books exist about this population. However, many other fields of inquiry are relevant to exploring issues related to LTELLs, though they may not explicitly use the terminology or look specifically at LTELLs. One area of great relevance is the small but significant research done on “Generation 1.5” students (defined as students who immigrated to the U.S. of school age, or were born in the U.S. but speak a language other than English at home, and have different learning needs from other ELLs because they are familiar with U.S. culture and schools, and yet “they are usually less skilled in the academic language associated with school achievement, especially in the area of writing” (Harklau, 2003: p. 1). While the vast majority of this work focuses on the college level, many of the issues faced by Generation 1.5 and strategies used to best meet their needs greatly overlap with the limited research on LTELLs. In addition, the general literature on ELL adolescence, especially the research that looks at issues related to literacy development and literacy strategies provide great insight into practices that may be helpful to LTELLs. Lastly, because the limited research into LTELLs indicates a lack of fluency in academic language in either English or the native language, the literature on heritage language programs are also relevant in considering approaches to improving instruction for LTELLs.
It should be noted that this annotated bibliography is organized alphabetically and not by our opinion on which articles are the most relevant. We leave it to the readers to decide which articles they feel are most relevant to their needs. In addition, links have been provided to resources that are available online. While many of the links direct you to public sites, some sites require access to that particular journal (for example through a library). These links are noted accordingly.
Benesch, S. (2008). Generation 1.5 and its Discourses of Partiality: A
Critical Analysis. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 7(3-4), 294-311.
The author provides a postmodern critique of the construct of Generation 1.5.
Specifically she notes the presence of three partialities in the discourse
surrounding Generation 1.5: (1) the partiality of demographics, (2) the
partiality of language, and (3) the partiality of academics. She argues that
these three partialities continue to perpetuate the monocultural/monolingual
ideology of the United States and serve to present the identities of members
Generation 1.5 as in-between or deficient rather than as fluid and multiple. In
juxtaposition to these partialities the author provides counter-discursive
texts that show self-identified members of Generation 1.5 who see themselves in
these more fluid ways and not as in-between or deficient. She concludes with
some recommendations on how to make education institutions more welcoming and
accountable to addressing this fluidity and to move beyond partialities. These
recommendations include discussing race and Generation 1.5 perspectives in
curricula, hiring more faculty of color, and creating campus-wide initiatives
that explore multiple identities. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all?content=10.1080/15348450802237954 (access requires password or access through a library)
Bernstein, S. (2004).
Teaching and Learning in Texas: Accountability Testing, Language, Race, and
Place. Journal of Basic Writing, 23(1),
4-24.
This article begins with an overview of the Texas accountability system and
then describes the college course taught by the author on basic writing to
ELLs. The bulk of the article provides a case study of "Noah" who the
author refers to as a member of "Generation 1.5." Noah entered Texas
public schools in 4th grade and received inconsistent language support
throughout his schooling career. Because of this, he entered college without
the necessary skills to be successful. The author examines how the use of the
generative theme of education and the examination of institutional factors
rather than individual ones allowed Noah to become a more effective reader and
writer. She concludes that this approach can help students like Noah become
advocates for their communities rather than continue to feel victimized and
marginalized. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ684120.pdf
Calderón, M. (2007). Teaching
Reading to English Language Learners, Grade 6-12: A Framework for Improving
Achievement in the Content Area. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
This book provides an overview of a research-based approach to teaching reading
to middle and high school ELLs known as the Project Expediting Comprehension
for English Language Learners (ExC-ELL). This model is based on three major
premises: (1) 100% student interaction, (2) semantic awareness, and (3) the
explicit teaching of reading comprehension. The book provides an overview of
how this model might look in each of the major content areas. A basic outline
of the structure of a lesson is as follows. The teacher begins by identifying
key vocabulary, finding ways to connect to student prior knowledge, and
identifying key metacognitive strategies to emphasize. The teacher then models
the reading and relevant metacognitive strategy. The students then partner read
from the beginning of the passage and practice the skill, and then reflect on
it. The model also encourages students working in teams of four for higher
order thinking activities. The book ends with an overview of effective
professional development in this area.
Callahan, R. (2006). The Intersection
of Accountability and Language: Can Reading Intervention Replace English
Language Development? Bilingual Research Journal, 30(1), 1-21.
This article argues that reading intervention programs are not sufficient in
meeting the needs of ELLs and argues that English Language Development (ELD)
programs are more appropriate and show better results. The author provides
empirical evidence from one school that shows that ELLs participating in ELD
programs outperformed those in a reading intervention program. The author
attributes this to the fact that ELD programs focus on the four modalities of
speaking, listening, reading, and writing and make content connections through
the use of themes while reading intervention programs focus exclusively on
reading, failing to help ELLs make content connections. The author also found
that Long-Term ELLs (defined as 7 or more years in the country) showed less
progress then recent arrivals in reading intervention programs and attributed
this to a school-wide phenomenon of LTELLs underperforming recent arrivals
(defined as 5 or fewer years). She hypothesized that this phenomenon could be
explained by the fact that recent arrivals oftentimes were coming with strong
foundations in their native languages that Long Term ELLs did not possess. The
author concludes with a call for a more holistic approach to language
development than the reading intervention approach that has been advocated by No
Child Left Behind. http://www.ode.state.or.us/opportunities/grants/nclb/title_iii/can-reading-intervention-replace-eld.pdf
Carreira, M. (2007).
Spanish-for-native-speaker Matters: Narrowing the Latino Achievement Gap
through Spanish Language Instruction. Heritage Language Journal, 5(1), 147-170.
This article argues that Spanish for Native Speaker (SNS) courses have an
integral role to play in closing the achievement gap for Latino students,
especially English Language Learners. After providing an overview of the
educational underachievement of Latino students and the fact that many Latino ELLs
develop oral proficiency in English but fail to master academic language, the
author makes the argument that SNS classes can help students with mastering
academic language. She argues that SNS teachers can do this by structuring
courses that (1) provide access to a rigorous academic preparation, (2)
socialize students to the ways of American education, and (3) capitalize on
students' cultural and linguistic heritage. She goes on to argue that in order
for these three criteria to be met SNS teachers must rethink their role in the
larger school community and in the larger educational outcome of their students,
and work to support all teachers in meeting the needs of Latino ELLs and make
connections with the parents and larger community. The result would be a more
supportive school environments and the instilling of biliteracy skills in
students. http://www.heritagelanguages.org/
Chevalier, J. (2004).
Heritage Language Literacy: Theory and Practice. The Heritage Language
Journal, 2(1), 1-19.
This article attempts to merge theory and practice in exploring the linguistic
needs of heritage language learners, defined as children born into a household
where a language other than English is spoken and who are bilingual to some
degree. After providing an overview of the linguistic needs of these learners,
the author provides a pedagogical model that could meet these needs. This model
is divided into four stages: (1) conversation, (2) description and narrative,
(3) evaluation and explanation, (4) argument. The rationale behind these stages
is to move from social language, which many of the learners will already
possess to academic discourse that they do not possess. In addition, each of
these four stages would be divided into two phases--an oral stage where
students can use their oral skills to make meaning and then a written phase.
The author concludes that this is a flexible model that is adaptable to many
different situations. http://www.heritagelanguages.org/
Colombi, M. C., &
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2002). Theory and Practice in the Development of Advanced
Literacy. In M. J. Schleppegrell, & M. C. Colombi (Eds.), Developing
Advanced Literacy in First and Second Languages (pp. 1-19). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
This chapter lays out a theoretical framework for the development of advanced
literacy in secondary and post secondary linguistically diverse students.
Advanced literacy is defined as the kind of meaning-making that is typical of
secondary and postsecondary schooling, and that is also required for
participation in many of the professional, technical, bureaucratic, and social
institutions of our world. The authors lay out two major theoretical orientations
that explore the development of advanced literacy: (1) a sociocultural
framework and (2) systemic functional literacy theory. The sociocultural
perspective explores the different Discourses connected to different
"communities of practice." The systemic functional literacy theory
focuses more on the specialized language structures or registers required in
different contexts. The authors argue that both perspectives are interrelated
and both advocate for direct instruction in the forms of advanced literacy
which contrasts with theories prominent in the second language acquisition
literature that argue against the direct teaching of form. The authors argue
that explicit instruction is especially important for second language learners
who once they have mastered advanced literacy will be in a unique position to
challenge the status quo.
Faltis, C., & Coulter, C.
(2008). Teaching English Learners and Immigrant Students in Secondary School. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
This book provides an overview of effective instruction for ELLs in secondary
schools. The book takes a sociocultural perspective on the acquisition of
English. This stance is a response to cognitive theorists such as Stephen
Krashen and Jim Cummins who emphasize the individual learner and what happens
in his/her head as central to second language acquisition and emphasizes
instead the importance of positive interaction with others in communities of
practice through apprenticeship. The authors then provide five commitments in practices based on this sociocultural perspective:
(1) active participation--ELLs must participate actively in classroom
activities that involve multiple opportunities for language and literacy use
affiliated with academic communities of practice, (2) social integration--ELLs
are socially integrated with peers of various language and academic abilities
to build on prior knowledge and to scaffold new knowledge, (3) integrated
language learning--English language learning is integrated throughout academic
content, (4) sociocultural identity support--ELLs' linguistic and cultural
identities and affinities are strengthened and nurtured in the classroom, and
(5) connection to wider context--wider community contexts are tied into and
built upon, as ELLs become participants in questioning and redesigning local
contexts and beyond. The remainder of the book provides case studies of four
different content areas that demonstrate these five practices: one in English,
Math, Social Studies, and Physics. Each case study provides a description of
the class and a detailed analysis of how it reflects the 5 principles of a
sociocultural perspective on second language acquisition. The book concludes
with a warning that effective practice is not enough to support ELLs. Larger societal
change and more welcoming schools are also vital for the success of ELLs.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N.
(2003). Writing Instruction for Struggling Adolescent Readers: A Gradual
Release Model. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(5), 396-405.
This article describes a model for approaching writing with struggling
adolescent readers known as the gradual release model. The basic premise of
this model is that initially the teacher does most or all of the writing and
gradually puts more of the responsibility for writing on the students. The
authors described their implementation of this model with a group of struggling
9th graders who were mostly ELLs. Some of the activities they implemented were
the language experience approach, interactive writing, writing models,
generative sentences, and power writing. All of these activities provided
scaffolding and eventually gave way to independent writing. The authors found
significant improvement in performance after implementation of this model
including a statistically significant improvement in the number of words
students were able to write in a minute on a given topic, a statistically
significant improvement in reading level, and the ability of 79% of the
students to move on to high school level English classes compared to 50%
school-wide for comparable students.
Forrest, S. (2006). Three
Foci of an Effective High School Generation 1.5 Literacy Program. Journal of
Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(2),
106-112.
After noting that the bulk of the limited research on Generation 1.5 focuses on
the college level, the author provides nine recommendations for what a high
school level program designed to meet the needs of this population should look
like. These recommendations are divided into curriculum-centered,
learner-centered, and educator-centered recommendations. The curriculum-centered
recommendations are to (1) establish higher track classes as opposed to lower
track classes, (2) provide a balanced approach to develop skills of academic
literacy across content area, and (3) develop critical literacy. The
learner-centered recommendations are to (4) recognize and focus on meeting the
diverse needs of learners, (5) consider the motivational levels of the
learners, and (6) provide continued instruction in the learner's first
language. The educator-centered recommendations are to (7) provide balanced and
holistic assessments, (8) make pacing and approaches to learning flexible, and
(9) provide staff development that addresses English acquisition and literacy
development strategies. The article ends with a call for collaboration between
educators to use these recommendations to begin to meet the unique needs of
this population of students.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.50.2.3 (access requires password or access through a library)
Freeman, D., & Freeman,
Y. (1989). A Road to Success for Language-Minority High School Students. In P.
Rigg, & V. Allen (Eds.), When They Don't All Speak English: Integrating
the ESL Student into the Regular Classroom
(pp. 126-138). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
An intensive summer program worked with at-risk Hispanic and Yaqui secondary
students to help them succeed in two courses required for graduation--biology
and United States history. Four principles were applied: (1) language is
learned best when kept whole; (2) classes should be learner-centered with
meaningful, functional activities; (3) language is learned in social
interaction; (4) learning requires that teachers have faith in learners. As a
result of their success in the program, the students developed academically and
gained confidence in themselves and their academic abilities.
Freeman, Y., Freeman, D.,
& Mercuri, S. (2002). Closing the Achievement Gap: How to Reach
Limited-Formal-Schooling and Long-Term English Learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
This book provides "four keys to school success" for older English
Learners--specifically students with Limited Formal Schooling and Long Term
English Learners. These four keys to success are (1) engaging students in
challenging, theme-based curriculum to develop academic concepts, (2) drawing
on students' backgrounds, (3) organizing collaborative activities and
scaffolding instruction to build students' academic English proficiency, and (4)
creating confident students who value school and value themselves as learners.
The book begins with an overview of the characteristics of LFS and LTELs and
argues that LFS students have many of the characteristics of voluntary
minorities and LTELs tend to have characteristics of involuntary minorities. It
them provides an overview of the special needs of this population and research
on best practices. The last two chapters provide detailed descriptions of
classrooms that represent these best practices and demonstrate all four keys to
success.
Freeman, Y., Freeman, D.,
& Mercuri, S. (2003). Helping Middle and High School Age English Language
Learner's Achieve Academic Success. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 1(1), 110-122.
This article provides a brief overview of three different types of ELLs: (1)
ELLs with adequate formal schooling, (2) ELLs with limited formal schooling,
and (3) Long Term English Learners. The authors note that the first group tends
to do the best in school while the latter two groups tend to struggle. They
then lay out four keys to success for older ELLs: (1) engaging students in
challenging, theme-based curriculum to develop academic concepts, (2) drawing
on students' background including their experience, culture, and language, (3)
organizing collaborative activities and scaffolding instruction to build
students' academic proficiency, and (4) creating confident students who value
school and value themselves as learners. The authors then provide a case study
demonstrating these four keys to success. The authors argue that the four keys
are effective for all three subpopulations of ELLs and they conclude with a
call for other teachers of ELLs to incorporate these techniques into their
classrooms. http://www.uc.edu/njrp/pdfs/Freeman.pdf
García-Vazquez, E., Vazquez,
L. A., Lopez, I. C., & Ward, W. (1997). Language Proficiency and Academic
Success: Relationships Between Proficiency in Two Languages and Achievement Among
Mexican American Students. Bilingual Research Journal, 21(4), 334-347.
This article provides the results of a quantitative study about the
relationship between English and Spanish language proficiency among Mexican
American youth and their achievement on standardized tests. The researchers
found the most significant correlation between English proficiency and
achievement on these tests. However, a significant correlation was also found
between reading and writing in Spanish and their achievement on standardized
tests in English. The authors argue these findings demonstrate the
interdependence of languages and provide evidence in support of late-exit
bilingual programs that emphasize biliteracy throughout the schooling career of
students.
Gawienowski, M. F., &
Holper, K. (2006). A Portrait of Generation 1.5 Students. In A. Blumenthal
(Ed.), Perspectives on Community College ESL, Volume 2: Students, Mission,
and Advocacy (pp. 117-130). Alexandria, VA:
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
This chapter provides a description of Generation 1.5 students attending
William Rainey Harper College, a community college in the northwest suburbs of
Chicago. After a brief overview, the chapter explores profiles of different
Generation 1.5 students and depicts them as a disengaged group who no longer
consider themselves ESL and resent being placed there again. The disengagement
is exacerbated when the students realize the work being asked of them is more
difficult than they were expecting and they begin to see more recent arrivals
making progress in ways that they have not been able to. Being too embarrassed
to ask for help the students instead act up in class. Because of these
persistent problems the faculty at Harper College decided to separate them from
other ESL students and created a class that fit their specific needs, namely
reading and writing. The faculty found attendance improved and most students
were able to move up to the next level. The chapter ends with a call for more
research into the special needs of this population and a call for more
appropriate ways to identify members of this group.
Goldenberg, C. (2008, Summer). Teaching English Language Learners: What the Research Does-and Does
not-Say. American Educator, 8-44.
This article provides a synthesis of two major reviews of research on effective
instruction for ELLs--one by the National Literacy Panel (NLP) and one by the
Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE). The author
argues that three basic conclusions can be gathered from both of these reviews:
(1) teaching students to read in their first language promotes higher levels of
reading achievement in English, (2) what we know about good instruction and
curriculum in general holds true for English learners as well; but (3) when
instructing English learners, teachers must modify instruction to take into
account students' language limitations. Some modifications mentioned in the
article include: (1) making text in English more comprehensible by using texts
with content that is familiar to students either experientially or through the
building of their prior knowledge in the classroom, (2) explicit teaching of vocabulary
through similar methods as with native English speakers but with added support
such as visuals and TPR, (3) using the primary language for support, (4)
general scaffolding including predictable routines, graphic organizers,
extended time, and targeting language and content objectives in every lesson,
and (5) assuring that language and content are assessed separately. The author
concludes by stressing the importance of basing decisions on how best to serve
ELLs on actual scientific research and not based on political affiliation or
ideology.
http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/summer2008/goldenberg.pdf
Goldschmidt, M. M., &
Miller, C. Z. (2005, Spring). Beyond the Academic Needs of Generation 1.5.
Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 21(2).
This article argues that the literature on Generation 1.5 must extend beyond
their academic needs and begin to explore their affective needs, which are also
crucial for their academic success. Based on a qualitative study of 18
Generation 1.5 students in a developmental education program at a large state university
the authors identified 5 affective domains that need to be addressed to improve
educational outcome for members of Generation 1.5: (1) the complexity of their
navigating cultural differences, (2) the control they have over their
identities, (3) the confidence they have in their identities, (4) the sense of
community they feel, and (5) the contributions they make to the larger
community. The study found that while the participants began low in their
awareness of all of these domains that they increased as the semester
progressed when they were provided space to explore these issues. This increase
in awareness led to improvement in their academic achievement and helped to
acclimate these students to the campus community. The authors conclude that
educators must go beyond providing academic support and provide safe spaces for
Generation 1.5 students to explore these affective issues.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4116/is_200504/ai_n13502934/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1
Gutierrez, K., &
Orellana, M. F. (2006). The "Problem" of English Learners:
Constructing Genres of Difference. Research in the Teaching of English, 40(4), 502-507.
This article challenges the current research practices in regard to ELL
literacy. The authors critique the way that many researchers construct a
problem through the use of statistics on the rise of immigrant populations,
playing into the fears of many and failing to explore the complexities of the
immigrant experience. They go on to explore the "selective
exemplification" practiced by researchers who oftentimes choose a
"slice of life" of ELLs that either serves to perpetuate stereotypes
and essentialize cultures or to conversely romanticize and exoticize the
experiences of these students. Lastly, the authors critique the framing of
English Learners as the "Other" to an unnamed mainstream culture.
They argue that even the seemingly benign cultural mismatch theory falls into
the trap of essentializing and pathologizing the "Other" in
suggesting that a change in the culture will lead to increased academic
achievement. The authors conclude with a call for a radical reformulation of
the genre of research on ELL literacy. They argue for a rejection of dualistic
notions of Us-Them and its replacement with a hybrid notion or one that
explores similarities rather than differences. http://www.jstor.org/pss/40171712 (access requires password or access through a library)
Harklau, Linda (2006). Generation
1.5 Students and College Writing (ERIC Digest.
Washington D.C: Educational Resources Information Center. (ED482491)
This digest provides a brief overview of the issues faced by Generation 1.5 students
in college. It then gives some advice on
how to best meet their needs including (1) being aware of students’ prior
academic literacy experiences, (2) promoting academic literacy, (3) helping
students develop critical literacy, and (4)
recognizing diverse needs.
Jacobs, C.L. (2008). Long Term English Learners Writing their Stories. English Journal, 97(6), 87-91.
High school teacher C. Lynn Jacobs noted that the long-term English language learners in her class had improved in reading comprehension but still lacked writing skills. Inspired by a state humanities project, she worked with the students to publish a collection of stories and poems. Writing about their lives provided the motivation, and writing from models of published texts provided the necessary structure for students' success. She offers step-by-step suggestions for teachers interested in helping English language learners "write better, with more confidence."
http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/download/nwp_file/10918/clynnjacobs_long-term.pdf?x-r=pcfile_d
Katayama, T. (2001). The
racial and ethnic identities of Dominicans in New York City (Conference Paper. Washington D.C: Educational
Resources Information Center. (ED455356)
This paper describes the findings of a qualitative study of Dominican
adolescents in New York City. The study found that first generation adolescents
tend to emphasize their immigration status, adolescents classified as Generation
1.5 (defined in this paper as youth living in the U.S at least half of their
life) tend to emphasize ethnic identity, and second generation youth tend to
move toward an identification within the racial categorization systems of the
U.S, though they still maintain strong ties to their Dominican heritage. The
author argues that Dominican adolescents are not necessarily rejecting their
African heritage, as is oftentimes thought, but instead continuing to use
aspects of the racial categorization systems of the Dominican Republic. She
concludes with a call to allow for this self-identification and to resist
imposing racial identities on people. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED455356.pdf
Katz, S. R. (1996). Where the
Streets Cross the Classroom: A Study of Latino Students' Perspectives on
Cultural Identity in City Schools and Neighborhood Gangs. Bilingual Research
Journal, 20(3 & 4), 603-631.
This article describes an ethnographic study of 8 Latino ESL middle school
students, 4 of whom had been born in the U.S and others who came at a young
age. In particular the research focused on their relationship with neighborhood
gangs. The author begins with a description of her theoretical framework. Her
framework distinguishes between internal definitions of ethnic identity
(definitions created by the members of the group) and external definitions of
ethnic identity (definitions created by outsiders). When power relations come
to play external definitions can lead to negative stereotypes that conflict
with the internal definitions. Latino students faced with this dilemma can
respond by (1) internalizing the negative stereotypes, (2) rejecting these
negative stereotypes and trying to create a positive counter-image, or (3)
resisting the stereotypes by slapping societies face with them. The researcher
argues that the students in her study seem to be utilizing the third method.
She provides a detailed case study of one of these students and documents the
ways he creates an oppositional identity to school and finds acceptance and
cultural affirmation through gang affiliation. She concludes that this is not
an inevitable outcome as many of the students initially expressed negative
feelings toward gang membership though they all eventually became gang
affiliated. She urges educators to work together to create more welcoming
spaces at school to prevent students from looking for acceptance elsewhere.
Macswan, J. (2000). The
Threshold Hypothesis, Semilingualism, and Other Contributions to a Deficit View
of Linguistic Minorities. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 22(1), 3-45.
This article critiques Jim Cummins' threshold hypothesis and idea of
semilingualism as holding a deficit view of linguistic minorities. Providing a
detailed critique of Cummins' theories, the author argues for a shift in
paradigm that explores the larger societal issues, especially the role of
socio-economic status on student achievement. The author argues Cummins
framework attributes school failure to the idea that linguistic minorities have
failed to develop native-like ability in either of their two languages (a
phenomenon the author contends cannot exist) and that Cummins conflates school
literacy with linguistic competence. The author argues against this deficit
view and argues that educators and researchers dedicated to improving
educational outcomes for linguistic minorities must stop using these labels and
the concepts associated with them. He argues instead that the same phenomenon
Cummins is attempting to explain can be interpreted as linguistic minorities
not receiving enough comprehensible input in school to develop school literacy
because of underfunded schools and lack of quality bilingual programs without
devaluing the linguistic capabilities of these students. http://hjb.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/22/1/3 (access requires password or access through a library)
Martin, P. (2003). Supporting
English Language Learners with Low Literacy Skills in the High School
Classroom. High School Reform and English Language Learner Students:
Perspectives from the Field (pp. 14-26).
Washington D.C: Council of Chief State School Officers.
This chapter describes the implementation of a native language arts class for
Latino English Language Learners with insufficient schooling. The author lays
out the principles of this course. These principles include building off of
literacies students bring to class such as oral storytelling and understanding
of narrative structures, a balance between higher order and lower order
literacy and thinking skills, and individualized plans for each student to
avoid the creation of a new prototypical student and further marginalizing
students who have already been marginalized by mainstream classes. The author
also lays out some of the limitations of the class that should be addressed
including the failure of the teacher to make explicit to students how the
skills they were learning in their native language could transfer to English.
He ends with a call for more collaboration between Literacy, ESL, and content
teachers to work on making these connections explicit.
Meltzer, J., & Hamann, E.
(2005). Meeting the literacy development needs of adolescent English
language learners through content-area learning. Providence, RI: The Education Alliance at Brown University.
This document provides a literature review of both adolescent literacy and
secondary school responsiveness to English language learners (ELLs) in order to
develop a research grounded underpinning for teacher training, professional
development, and other support for content area middle and high school
teachers. The authors argue that the research on recommended practices to
promote mainstream adolescent students' academic literacy development across
the content areas and the research on effective content area instruction of
ELLs overlap substantially, suggesting that mainstream teachers who use
effective practices for content area literacy development will be using many of
the practices recommended for those trained to work with ELLs. Eight
instructional practices are supported by both literatures: (1) teacher
modeling, strategy instruction, and using multiple forms of assessment; (2)
emphasis on reading and writing; (3) emphasis on speaking and
listening/viewing; (4) emphasis on thinking; (5) creating a learner centered
classroom; (6) recognizing and analyzing content area discourse features; (7)
understanding text structures within the content areas; and (8) vocabulary
development. The authors argue that these practices should be part of the
design of preservice and inservice teacher professional development, enabling
mainstream content teachers to be more responsive to the needs of all their
students. http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/adlit/adell_litdv1.pdf
http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/adlit/adell_litdv2.pdf
Meltzer, J., & Hamann, E. (2006). Double-Duty Literacy Training.
Principal Leadership, 6(6), 22-27.
This article argues that effective instruction
for high school ELLs has many parallels to the general research on adolescent
literacy development. The authors argue that schools can provide professional
development that hits three major areas and will serve the double purposes of
helping teachings meet the literacy needs of all their students, both ELL and
non-ELL. The three areas are (1) student motivation and engagement, (2) generic
literacy and learning practices, and (3) content- specific literacy practices.
The authors conclude by stressing the importance of holding all teachers
accountable to touching on all three areas in their classroom and provide some
ideas on how this support might look in schools. http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e48c05de22c00ccf6fe4f456115b674cf5989cdb1558fb2bcab57971e953f1a2b&fmt=P
Menken, K., Kleyn, T., &
Chae, N. (forthecoming). When Change is the Only Consistency: The Case of Long
Term English Language Learners in Secondary School.
This article provides the findings from a qualitative research study on Long
Term English Language Learners (LTELLs) in 3 New York City public schools. The
researchers divide the research participants into three separate but
overlapping groups: (1) vaiven students--students who travel back and forth from
their native country to the United States, (2) students who received
inconsistent U.S schools--students who transfer often between schools, change
from bilingual to ESL or vice, versa, and students who receive no services. and
(3) transitioning students--students who simply need a bit more time to test
out of language support programming. The researchers found that the large
majority of LTELLs fit into the first 2 categories and their major commonality
was inconsistency in their programming. The researchers also found that these
students tended to be doing very poorly in school and were at risk of not
graduating. They conclude with some recommendations for reform including
ensuring consistent programming for ELLs within schools through coherent
language allocation policies and ensuring students who transfer are placed in
schools with similar programming to the school they transferred from. The
authors speculate as to the possible benefits of biliteracy instruction and the
teaching of explicit literacy strategies and provide a brief overview of a
pilot study they will be implementing in the 2008-2009 school year. They also
call for continued research into the needs of LTELLs.
Menken, K. & Kleyn, T (2010). The Long Term Impact of Subtractive Schooling in the Educational Experiences of Secondary English Language Learners. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(4), 399-417.
This article describes major finding from research on Long Term English Language Learners, which explores the characteristics and educational needs of this student population, is that the students' prior schooling has been subtractive, posing significant challenges for their academic literacy acquisition. Having attended school in the USA for seven years or more, LTELLs have experienced programming that has not provided sufficient opportunities to fully develop their native language literacy skills, in spite of research which states that such opportunities are correlated with school success. LTELLs thus arrive in high school with limited academic literacy in English or their native languages, in spite of their oral bilingualism, posing difficulties for them in all subject areas. As part of a three-year research project, qualitative research was conducted in three New York City high schools. This article draws upon interview data and document analyses to describe the interconnection between the students' schooling experiences, language usage, and current academic challenges. It also provide suggestions for how programming can be designed to address the needs of this often overlooked student population.
http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&id=doi:10.1080/13670050903370143 (access requires password or access through a library)
Miele, C. (2003). Bergen
Community College Meets Generation 1.5. Community College Journal of
Research and Practice, 27(7) , 603-612.
The author provides an overview of The Language Minority Crossover Student
Project, a pilot program created by Bergen Community College to meet the needs
of Generation 1.5 students. The program includes more rigorous testing to
ensure proper placement and to prevent Generation 1.5 students from being
placed into ESL sequences inappropriate to their needs. Students identified as
meeting characteristics of Generation 1.5 are placed into a language support
sequence more appropriate to their needs that included a 3 credit Basic English
skills course taught by an English teacher and a 2 credit grammar and language
study course taught by an ESL teacher, with the two teachers collaborating
throughout the semester. The students are also given a 1 credit lab course that
provides individualized tutoring to meet their specific linguistic needs. The
author notes that the program created more awareness of Generation 1.5 issues
on campus and invested English teachers more in meeting their needs. She also
notes that this pilot program has set the groundwork for more programming for
this growing population of students.
Moore, R., &
Christiansen, L. (2005). Academic Behaviors and Performances of Generation 1.5
Students who Succeed in College Science Courses. The Learning Assistance
Review, 10(2), 17-29.
This article examines the behavior of successful and unsuccessful Generation
1.5 students in The Commanding English program, a support program designed to
meet their specific needs. The study found that CE students who were successful
in an introduction to biology course were more academically engaged and showed
similar characteristics as successful native English speaking students in the
class. These characteristics included regular attendance, completing extra
credit work, attending help sessions, and visiting the professor during office
hours. By contrast both unsuccessful CE students and native English speaking
students had poor attendance, did no extra credit, did not attend help
sessions, and did not go to office hours. The authors conclude that Generation
1.5 students, while facing more challenges than their native English speaking
peers, can achieve the same academic outcomes as native English speaking
students through appropriate academic behavior. http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e48c05de22c00ccf67125e54a9a1d6ace78e982d27fad3bf93b070c899485927d&fmt=P
Newell, J., & Smith, J.
(1999). Academic success for long term ESL students (Conference Paper. Washington, D.C: Educational
Research Information Center. (ED 432263)
This paper offers an overview of a program in a New York City High School
designed specifically for "Long Term ESL students," defined as
students receiving ESL instruction for 7 or more years. This program separates
these students from "traditional" ESL students and places them in one
of three levels: (1) a class for those reading at grade levels 1 or 2, (2) a
class for those reading at grade levels 3 or 4, and (3) a class for those
reading at grade levels 5 or 6. At each level students received two separate
ESL classes: one focused on reading and one focused on writing. The reading
class consisted of sustained silent reading, book reports, occasional
mini-lessons, and individual conferencing with teachers. In the writing class
teachers created theme-based units that incorporated many genres of writing and
emphasized the writing process. The authors detail how in the writing class the
teachers broke down the writing task into small chunks and explicitly taught
students the academic language needed to be successful writers. They also
demonstrated the progress of one child in the context of this scaffolding of
academic tasks. Beyond these two periods of ESL the students were also given a
period of Native Language Arts, providing them another opportunity to develop
academic skills that they would then be able to transfer to English. The authors
end with a call for schools to provide appropriate support for Long Term ESL
students because of the fact that they have experienced a great deal of
academic failure and are at higher risk of dropping out of school. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED432147.pdf
Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable Harm: Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for Long Term English Learners. Long Beach, CA: Californians Together.
This report presents survey data collected from 40 school districts throughout California in the 2009-2010 school year that document the challenges schools face in meeting the needs of Long Term English Learners. The major findings include: (1) 59% of secondary school English Learners are Long Term English Learners, (2) Californis districts do not have a shared definition of of Long Term English Learner, (3) deficiencies in their schooling experience including poor language support lead to students becoming Long Term English Learners, (4) their overall profile include high functioning social language and weak academic language causing them to remain stuck at the intermediate level of English proficiency, and (5) few districts have designated programs designed to mee their needs. The report them presents a recommended program to meet the needs of these students that includes: (1) a specialized English Language Development class catered to their needs, (2) clustered placement in heterogeneous and rigorous grade-level classes taught with differentiated SDAIE strategies, (3) a master schedule designed for flexibility and movement as students progress, (4) systems for monitoring progress and triggering support, and (5) a school-wide focus on study skills. http://www.calfund.org/pub_documents/reparable_harm_full_final_lo.pdf
Phelan, P., Yu, H. C., &
Davidson, A. L. (1994). Navigating the Psychosocial Pressures of Adolescence:
The Voices and Experiences of High School Youth. American Educational
Research Journal, 31(2), 415-447.
This article describes a qualitative study based on interviews with 55 diverse
adolescents. The researchers used the Students' Multiple Worlds Model and Typology
that holistically explores the students' navigating of their school, family,
and peer worlds rather than explore them in isolation like many studies tend to
do. Based on this framework, the researchers categorized these high school
youth into 4 groups: (1) congruent world/smooth transition--students who
experienced no tension between the different worlds they navigated, (2)
different worlds/border crossings managed--students who experienced tension
between the different worlds but who successfully navigated them, (3) different
worlds/border crossings difficult--students who experienced tension between the
different worlds and were not able to successfully navigate them, and (4)
different worlds/border crossings resisted--students who experienced tension
between the different worlds and resisted navigating worlds they perceived as
not welcoming to them. The first two groups were academically successful
students and the last two groups were not academically successful. The authors
conclude with a call to listen to the voices of students when contemplating
school reform.
http://aer.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/31/2/415 (access requires password or access through a library)
Roessingh, H., & Kover,
P. (2002). Working with Younger-Arriving ESL Learners in High School English:
Never Too Late to Reclaim Potential. TESOL Canada Journal, 19(2), 1-19.
This article examines a program designed to meet the needs of what the authors
refer to as "younger-arriving ESL learners." These are immigrant
students who were born in Canada or entered Canadian schools at a young age.
Many were exited from ESL programming but were experiencing academic
difficulties at the high school were the study was conducted. The staff created
a program to assist this population of students. The program involved students
participating in a sheltered English class in the 9th and 10th grade in
conjunction with an ESL adjunct class. The sheltered English class primarily
focused on concepts and the ESL adjunct class focused on explicitly teaching
the learning strategies and academic language needed in order for ESL learners
to be able to understand the concepts. The findings were that while students in
this program improved on their writing based on the state standardized
assessment, they continued to lag in their ability to answer multiple choice
questions. The authors hypothesized that this may be a reflection of the fact
that younger-arriving ESL learners tend to read English literally and many of
the multiple choice questions expect them to make inferences as well as a
reflection of a lack of cultural capital. In addition, they found that the
students improved greatly in mathematics and hypothesized that the explicit literacy
strategies they taught may have transferred to their math problem-solving
skills. They also note anecdotally an improvement in the L1 of these students
which they attribute to their increased interaction with older-arriving ESL
learners in their ESL class. They hypothesize that this may have helped them
achieve CALP in their native languages which they could then transfer to
English and gave them a more positive sense of identity. The authors conclude
with a call for schools to do a better job of servicing younger-arriving ESL
learners.
Rubinstein-Avila, E. (2004).
Conversing with Miguel: An Adolescent English Language Learner Struggling with
Later Literacy Development. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 47(4), 290-301.
This article provides a case study of the literacy practices of an 8th grade
struggling ELL named Miguel. The case study found that despite the fact that
Miguel used a great deal of literacy in his home, as the translator of
important documents for his mother, he continued to struggle in school because
of lack of academic language in both English and Spanish. The author documented
some strategies that Miguel's 8th grade teachers used to improve his literacy
including sustained silent reading and the explicit teaching of literacy
strategies such as the use of subheadings and context clues. The author argues
that all secondary teachers must be trained in how to effectively teach ELLs
like Miguel who may be many years below grade level but who possess both the
ability and desire to improve their literary repertoire. http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e48c05de22c00ccf6a3ce6a1fdfbb0c56f8f9991e37ab22c4272f714e2b296a44&fmt=P
Ruiz-de-Velasco, J., Fix, M.,
& Clewell, B. C. (2000). Overlooked and Underserved: Immigrant Students
in U.S Secondary Schools. Washington D.C:
The Urban Institute.
This report provides an overview of issues pertaining to immigrant students in
secondary schools. In particular, it focuses on several demonstration schools
and the struggles they faced serving "underschooled students" who are
newcomers in high school entering with low literacy skills in their native
languages and "long term LEP students" who have been in US schools
for 6 or more years and while orally proficient in English lacked the literacy
skills needed to be successful in high school. The report documents some challenges
faced by secondary schools trying to meet the needs of these populations of
students including departmentalization that isolated language development
specialists from content area teachers who then develop a "they are not
our problem" mentality, lack of common planning time, lack of training for
content teachers on how to infuse literacy, lack of standards and
accountability, and lack of time to meet the needs of these students within the
traditional 50 minute classes. Some reforms the report sees as promising are
increased professional development for content area teachers, the increase in
sheltered instruction and common planning time between language development
specialists and content teachers, block scheduling, and the creation of
standards for ESL and bilingual classes. The report concludes with a call for
more research into underschooled and Long Term LEP students.
http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/overlooked.pdf
Schiller, N. G., Basch, L.,
& Blanc, C. S. (1995). From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing
Transnational Migration. Anthropological Quarterly, 68(1), 48-63.
This article problematizes the mainstream U.S notion of immigration as a
process of giving up where you come from and adopting an "American"
lifestyle. The authors argue for a reconceptualization from immigrant to
tranmigrant. These transmigrants, while adapting to U.S society, maintain ties
to their homelands through the sending of money, buying of property, creation
of businesses, etc. The authors connect this transnationalism to the rise of
globalization and the flow of capital as well as to the decline in the power of
the nation-state. The authors conclude by contrasting this transnationalism
with the current assimilationist climate in the U.S and notes that the
discourse of identity associated with nation-states cannot encompass the full
complexity of the multiple identities of these transmigrants. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/3317464.pdf
(access requires password or access through a library)
Scwartz, G. G. (2004). Coming
to Terms: Generation 1.5 Students in Mainstream Composition. The Reading
Matrix, 4(3), 40-57.
This article problematizes the term Generation 1.5 as vague and argues it does
not reflect the true diversity within this population. The author proposes the
term "cross-over students" to describe members of Generation 1.5 that
are placed into mainstream English composition classes rather than ESL classes
on entrance into college. After providing an overview of basic principles in
second language acquisition she then describes some defining characteristics of
cross-over students. Some of these characteristics include a lack of academic
language in English or their native language, a familiarity with American
culture, and a resistance to being labeled "ESL." Based on these
characteristics, the author problematizes terms such as ESL, second language
learner and native and nonnative speaker as difficult if not impossible to
define. Nevertheless, the author argues that mainstream composition teachers
must become more aware of the special needs of this population, especially
their lack of academic language and create classrooms more responsive to their
needs. http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/schwartz/article.pdf
Short, D., & Fitzsimmons,
S. (2007). Double the Work: Challenges and Solutions to Acquiring Language
and Academic Literacy for Adolescent English Language Learners. New York, NY: Alliance for Excellent Education.
This report provides an overview of issues related to adolescent ELLs both in
the classroom and on the policy level. The basic thesis is that adolescent ELLs
are expected to do double the work of native English speaking students--both
master academic English while mastering content knowledge. They note that while
many of these students are newcomers in high school many have also been in US
schooling for many years with 57% born in the US. However, they continue to be
ELLs because they have failed to master academic English for many reasons
including changing programs, interrupted schooling, or traveling to and from
their native country regularly. The authors focus on larger policy issues such
as how ELLs are identified but also explore how to best meet the special needs
of this population. One of their major recommendations is to train all high
school teachers to infuse literacy instruction into their curriculum. They
highlight nine promising practices that should be incorporated: (1) integrate
all four language skills into instruction from the start, (2) teach the
components and processes of reading and writing, (3) teach reading
comprehension strategies, (4) focus on vocabulary development, (5) build and
activate prior knowledge, (6) teach language through content and themes, (7)
use native language strategically, (8) pair technology with existing
interventions, and (9) motivate ELLs through choice. The authors conclude with
a call for more research into the literacy needs of adolescent ELLs including
studies of different programs designed to better meet their literacy needs and
studies of their out of school literacy needs. http://www.all4ed.org/files/DoubleWork.pdf
Singhal, M. (2004). Academic
Writing and Generation 1.5: Pedagogical Goals and Instructional Issues in the
College Composition Classroom. The Reading Matrix, 4(3), 1-13.
This article begins by providing 6 characteristics of Generation 1.5 students:
(1) nontraditional ESL Learners (familiar with American culture), (2) Ear
Learners (learned English primarily through hearing it and not through reading
or writing), (3) Limited Knowledge of home language (academically illiterate),
(4) growing knowledge of English, (5) good aural/oral skills, and (6)
inexperienced readers and writers. It then explores three major components of
academic language. The first one is a linguistic component that includes the
phonological, lexical, grammatical, sociolinguistic, and discourse components.
The second one is a cognitive component that includes the higher-order thinking
skills on Bloom's taxonomy. The third one is a language discovery component
that includes the discovery of information including skimming, paraphrasing,
taking notes, and outlining. The author then argues that teachers working with
Generation 1.5 students must explicitly teach the 3 components of academic
language in what she terms an academic writing pedagogy.
http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/singhal/article2.pdf
Spaulding, S., Carolino, B.,
& Amen, K. (2004). In Smith K. B. (Ed.), Immigrant Students and
Secondary School Reform: Compendium of Best Practices. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School
Officers.
This report examines best practices in immigrant education in secondary
schools. One of the major points emphasized is the importance of developing
academic literacy in secondary school immigrant students and a note of warning
on assuming that if a student is fluent in BICS he/she no longer needs language
support. Some of the recommendations made in developing academic literacy
include: (1) recognizing the different linguistic and academic needs of
students in various ELL subpopulations (recently arrived immigrants with native
language literacy, recently arrived immigrants without native language literacy,
and Long Term ELLs, (2) using the native language to support English language
development, (3) implementing language development standards and assessments
that are directly linked to academic standards and assessments, (4) creating
literacy-rich secondary school environments, (5) using instructional approaches
that unify language and content learning, and (6) instructing students in
language learning strategies. In addition, the report offers six
recommendations for the creation of effective professional development plans
for secondary teachers of ELLs: (1) all teachers learn to respect and to
integrate the languages and cultures of immigrant students in language
learning, (2) all teachers learn how to connect content instruction with
language instruction, (3) all teachers are empowered with linguistic knowledge,
(4) pre-service training provides basic competency in instructing ELLs, (5)
inservice professional development is in-depth and ongoing and emphasizes
ESL/mainstream teacher collaboration, and (6) build the capabilities of
paraprofessionals, particularly of bilingual paraprofessionals. The report also
includes overviews of students with limited formal schooling, parental
involvement, and ELL special education with case studies describing best
practices in all of these areas. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED484705.pdf
Valdez, G. (1992). Bilingual
Minorities and Language Issues in Writing: Toward Professionwide Responses to a
New Challenge. Written Communication, 9(1),
85-136.
This article argues that the teaching of English composition has been
compartmentalized into work focused on native English speaking populations and
work offered on ESL students. The author problematizes this
compartmentalization and argues that while students still considered learning
the language (called incipient bilinguals) are placed in ESL, students who have
a working knowledge of both languages (called functional bilinguals) are most
often placed into mainstream classes despite the fact that they oftentimes are
not able to express themselves completely idiomatically in English. This
inability and the acquisition of non-Standard dialects of English such as Chicano
English oftentimes give mainstream teachers the impression that they are either
basic writers or in need of more ESL support. The author goes on to lay out a
research agenda for bilingual minorities based on 4 questions: (1) What kinds
of writing instruction are bilingual minority students generally exposed to?
(2) In what ways is the writing of bilingual minority students treated as a
problem by mainstream teachers? (3) What is the impact of language factors on
the writing of incipient bilinguals and of fluent/functional bilinguals? (4)
What is the influence of background factors on the writing of bilingual
minority students? She argues that both mainstream and minority researchers
must work to answer these questions to gain not only a better perspective on
improving writing instruction for bilingual minority students but also in strengthening
the theories of writing in general. http://wcx.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/9/1/85
(requires password or access through a library)
Vasquez, C. (2007). Comments
from the Classroom: A Case Study of a Generation 1.5 Student in a University
IEP and Beyond. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(3), 345-370.
This article provides a case study of one Generation 1.5 student. This student
was able to use her advanced oral/aural proficiency in English to develop
positive relationships with her Intensive English Program (IEP) professors and
the international students in her class. This relationship positioned her as
highly motivated and more knowledgeable then her peers. However, this masked
the difficulties she continued to experience with academic language. Despite
achieving high marks in her IEP classes her IEP teachers assessed her writing
skills as average or poor. As she continued her studies in the mainstream her
grades declined and she eventually dropped out of college. The author argues
that schools need to do a better job of meeting the needs of Generation 1.5
students like her because currently they are set up for failure. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/canadian_modern_language_review/v063/63.3vasquez.pdf
(requires password or access through a library)
Villalva, K. E. (2006).
Hidden Literacies and Inquiry Approaches of Bilingual High School Writers.
Written Communication, 23(1), 91-129.
This article presents findings from case studies of two Latina bilingual high
school writers engaged in a year-long research and writing project. Both young
women demonstrated unique patterns related to their approaches to inquiry and
performance of literacy practices. By using an ecological framework to
integrate a multiple literacies perspective into the study, the author argues
that both young women engaged in “hidden literacies” that indicated potential
toward the development of academic English. The article closes with suggestions
for a reframing of common approaches to the study of academic English by
examining how out of school experiences shape how a student understands a task
and how this out of school knowledge can be incorporated into school-based
literacy practices. http://wcx.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/23/1/91
(requires password or access through a library)
Yang, H., Urrabazo, T., &
Murray, W. (2001). How did multiple years (7+) in a BE/ESL program affect
the english acquisition and academic achievement of secondary LEP students:
Results from a large urban school district
(Research Report Dallas. (ERIC Document Service No. ED452709)
This report provides a quantitative analysis of the performance of
"continuing LEP students" (defined as students who have been in ESL
or bilingual programming for 7 or more years and have not been able to meet the
exit criteria) in the Dallas Public School system. The analysis found that
continuing LEP students seem to stagnate at level 3 of 5 on the Woodcock-Munoz
Language Survey that measured their CALP and that these students also did not
demonstrate continuing growth on other standardized tests, including the SAT 9.
The authors contribute this lack of growth to a reflection of the overall poor
quality of education in urban schools as well as to the lack of mastery of
higher-ordering thinking skills as indicated by an item analysis of the
standardized assessments. The authors attribute this lack of mastery to inappropriate
course assignments (many continuing LEP students were placed into beginning ESL
courses), lack of rigorous instruction in ESL programs, unrealistic exit
criteria that caused students to disengage from schools out of frustration, and
lack of consistency in programming. The authors conclude with a call for more
appropriate support for this population. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED452709.pdf
Yi, Y. (2007). Engaging
Literacy: A Biliterate Student's Composing Practices Beyond School. Journal
of Second Language Writing, 16, 23-39.
This article provides a case study of the beyond school literacy practices of a
Generation 1.5 adolescent of Korean descent. It provides a detailed description
of the online community of Korean Generation 1.5 students that the research
subject participated in and examines the multiple literacies, genres, and
fluidity of language used in her writing. Based on these findings the author
concludes that educators need to inform themselves more on the literacy
practices of Generation 1.5 students out of school. To ignore these out of
school literacy practices provides only a partial picture of these students and
may lead teachers to the false conclusion that these students are struggling
writers when in fact they display sophisticated writing techniques outside of
the classroom that incorporate elements of their native languages.
Zen, D. (2001). What is
wrong with ESL programs in schools?
(Conference Paper. Washington, D.C: Educational Resources Information Center.
(ED482580)
This paper provides case studies of 3 Long term ESL students (defined as
students in ESL for 4 to 8 years). The author found that these students lacked
basic English literacy skills and attribute this to poor quality programs that
oftentimes lack textbooks, a coherent curriculum, and provide them no support
in their content area classes. The author sees promise in the current
standards-based movement in that it will ensure more rigorous instruction for
ESL students and help them master CALP. hhttp://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED482580.pdf
About the Authors
Nelson Flores is a doctoral student in Urban Education at the CUNY Graduate Center where he is also a research assistant for a study on LTELLs sponsored by the New York City Department of Education in collaboration with The Research Institute for the Study of Language in Urban Society (RISLUS). He is also an ESL teacher in a small high school in the Bronx. He can be reached at nflores@gc.cuny.edu.
Jeremy Rafal is a doctoral student in Linguistics at the CUNY Graduate Center.
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RISLUS, The CUNY Graduate Center 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4309 telephone: 212-817-8511 fax: 212-817-1526 email: rislus@gc.cuny.edu |