Theodore Albrecht (Kent State University), The musicians in Balthazar Wigand’s depiction of the performance of Haydn’s Die Schöpfung, Vienna, March 27, 1808.

Cristina Alexandrescu (Archäologisches Institut der Universität zu Köln), Iconography of musical instruments from the Roman times.

Greek myths describing battles – such as the story of Achilles, the war of Troy, or the Amazons – were often chosen by the Romans as subjects for their wall decorations, mosaic floors, or sarcophagi. The sarcophagi of the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. contain also scenes of real battles, such as those between Romans and Barbarians. Both types of representations, the mythical and real battles, are an important source for music history of the Roman period. By considering some examples of such representations, the paper will show how the concern for realism in representation of musical instruments was present even when the iconographic schema (Greek or Hellenistic) belonged to the older tradition.

Jannet Ataeva (Rossijskij institut istorii iskusstv, St. Petersburg), Iconography of musical instruments in St. Petersburg monumental and decorative sculpture.

Representations of musical instruments have been included in decorations of monuments of St. Petersburg since the town’s founding in 1703, documenting changes of instruments’ symbolism, meaning, and interpretation. The most commonly represented instruments in decorations on 18th-century public buildings and private residences, 19th-century apartment houses, and buildings of the Soviet era are the trumpet and the lyre – symbols of military valor and poetic inspiration – but they also include rare images of Russian folk instruments, such as the balalaika, accordion.

Mathias Auclair (Bibliothèque-Musée de l’Opéra) & Pauline Girard  (Bibliothèque Nationale de France),  Twentieth-century’s iconographic collections of the Bibliothèque-Musée de l’Opéra in Paris.

The Bibliothèque-Musée de l’Opéra (BMO) – established in 1866 to preserve the archives of the Opéra de Paris and since 1935 affiliated with the Bibliothèque Nationale (since 1942 being a part of its Music Department) – preserves a large collection of iconographic sources documenting performances, mostly at the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique (stage and costumes designs, models, stage photographs, portraits of dancers and singers, posters, programs and illustrated tickets). A part of the documentation also came from the Ballets Suédois and Ballets Russes (photographs, stage and costumes designs, illustrated programs), and from various stage designers, photographers, choreographers, and personalities involved with opera and dance performances. With different kinds of acquisitions, such as purchases, gifts, payments of death duties, deposits, the archives also took a possession of documents about circus and music-hall performances. The iconographic sources remain nevertheless totally consistent with the other collections of the library preserving scores, books and periodicals, letters and manuscripts, public and private archives, and press clippings. Preserving this 20th-century iconographic collection, making it available to researchers, and lending items to other institutions for exhibits in France and abroad leads to specific preservation problems rarely encountered in ordinary libraries.

In his very first letter to Arnold Schoenberg, dating from 18 January 1911, Wassily Kandinsky expressed his conviction that his and Schoenberg’s "efforts … and the entire way of thinking and feeling" have "a great deal in common". Schoenberg’s reaction to Kandinsky’s assessment was very positive as proved by his reply of 24 January 1911. It is known that the immediate stimulus for Kandinsky’s statement was the concert in Munich on 2 January 1911 at which only music by Schoenberg was performed. Kandinsky’s very initial response to this concert was, however, not the aforementioned letter to Schoenberg but rather two charcoal sketches in which he visualized his impressions of this concert. These two sketches are very informative because they explicitly belong to the genesis of Kandinsky’s canvas Impression III (Concert). In this respect they elucidate the process of visual abstraction realized in Impression III. This process embodies aesthetic and existential aspects according to the premises of Kandinsky’s principle of "inner necessity" (innere Notwendigkeit). This principle of aesthetic creativity is not only relevant to Kandinsky at this period but also to Schoenberg, as his compositions (in particular the second string quartet op. 10, the three piano pieces op. 11, Die glückliche Hand, op. 18 and Herzgewächse, op. 20) and the correspondence with Kandinsky as well as their collaboration in Der Blaue Reiter clearly prove. The aesthetic principles of these two artists suggest a correspondence of perspective which provides an illuminating focus for a closer examination of the rather complex relationship between them. The analysis of this relationship will explicitly refrain from any speculations about an inner correspondence between abstract art and atonality or dodecaphony – the striking differences within the chronology of these events already stands in the way of such an assumption. Apart from any such possible speculation, the paper will instead show that Kandinsky’s and Schoenberg’s oeuvres of the years around 1910 as well as the letters they exchanged are striking evidence that the principle of "inner necessity" is not so much the result of any possible expressionist endeavor as the consequence of changes in artistic techniques. These new techniques are related to profound shifts in intellectual assumptions that led to a new concept of composition, epitomized by technical developments controlling the elements of the artistic language, and an essential component of the process of creating a new style.

Jordi Ballester (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona), Music in the 16th-century Catalan painting.

A catalogue of virtually all 16th-century Catalan paintings with musical iconography includes fifty items. This is not a small number if we take into an account the Catalan historical situation during this period. On the one hand, the region was recovering from the civil war which took place during the second half of the 15th century and, on the other hand, after several centuries of being at the forefront of the Aragon Kingdom, Catalonia lost its political power and the court able to commission sumptuous works of art. The paper will outline the procedures in compilation of the catalogue, taking a look at the historical context and artistic style of the paintings, and the classification of their subjects. Finally, depicted musical instruments and ensembles will be analyzed, pointing out the relationship (or lack of the relationship) between contemporaneous musical practices and iconographical patterns.

The history of performance practice rarely includes information on architectural acoustics, although it is well known that room acoustics is among the most important parameters of sound production and thus for the performance of a musical work. One of the reasons for this astonishing neglect is the lack of information that would allow us to reconstruct the acoustical properties of a theater, hall, or church used for performance. Besides written reports, drawings are often the only documents we have of a architectural place used for performance. Rules are given about how a network of information can be established that allows for reconstruction of acoustics during a musical performance, even if a room no longer exists or no exact room dimensions are available. Special attention is given to distortion of perspective in drawings of architectural spaces and to the change of acoustical properties of opera houses and concert rooms since the seventeenth century.

Eleonora M. Beck (Lewis and Clark College, Portland), Justice and music in Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel frescoes.

The paper explores the enigmatic representation of music beneath Giotto’s figure of Justice and the disruption of music making under Injustice in the Scrovegni Chapel. Justice sits in a niche surrounded by classical and gothic decorations. Beneath her, three women sing and dance to the playing of tambourine. On the opposite wall sits Injustice, an old corrupt judge on a crumbling seat, bordered by cracking medieval ramparts. Below him the once placid world has been disrupted, the women beaten, and the music stopped. It will be shown that the program for Giotto’s musical justice consists of a complex web of influences, including the De Republica of Cicero, as transmitted in the City of God by Augustine, and Peter of Abano’s astrological writing concerning Venus and Mars. The connection between justice and music established in the frescoes is paramount to the understanding of subsequent representations of music in the Trecento, including Ambrogio Lorenzetti’s Effects of Good Government in City in the Sala della Pace in Siena and the ballatas in the Decameron of Boccaccio.

Alan Berkowitz (Swarthmore College), A cultural iconography of the qin.

The qin, or gu qin, is the premier Chinese musical instrument, a fretless seven-string horizontal zither that can capture eternity and can make a moment timeless. But it also is the emblem par excellence of traditional Chinese civilized culture, the epitome of aesthetic expression, and the exemplification of personal self-cultivation. In traditional China the qin is the correlate of inner virtue, the one being the expression of the other, and lore about qin players and aficionados has highlighted the literary and artistic landscapes of traditional Chinese culture over the millennia. Emperors, real and legendary; scholar-officials, literati, and poets; high-minded recluses, Confucians, and Daoists – qin players of early and medieval China – the stories of these individuals formulate qin iconography in traditional Chinese culture. Further, while the qin often is the vehicle for the expression of one's inner tune, it also may convey broader themes in Chinese thought, illustrating, for example, a prime notion that words are unnecessary to convey thoughts and emotions.

Vladimir A. Belov (Rossijskij institut istorii iskusstv, St. Petersburg), The illustrations in the Utrecht Psalter and the introduction of bowing in Western Europe.

Egberto Bermudez (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá), The harp in the Iberian countries and its dominions, 1550-1800: A view through iconography.

The harp could be considered the most important continuo musical instrument in the Hispanic musical world from the 16th to the 18th century. Two types of instruments were present during this period, a single rank instrument and a double rank crossed-strung instrument. Iconography, musical sources, and archival references document the use of both types in performances of sacred and secular music in Spain and Portugal and their dominions outside Europe (the Americas, Asia, and Africa). Through a study of iconographic evidence, this paper intends to follow the development of these two types, their dissemination, and the cultural and musical confluences resulting from these processes.

Peter Beudert (School of Theatre Arts, University of Arizona), Visual art for entertainment in the 19th century: The painters of the Paris Opera.

The Paris Opera employed specialized painters to create the on-stage decorations for their numerous productions throughout the 19th century. The enormous volume of productions and the growth of the physical stages drew unprecedented numbers of theatrical painters to Paris and its many ateliers. The culmination of this movement coincided with the opening of Garnier’s Opera in 1875 which was less than a decade before the realistic movement that would so radically shift stage design aesthetics and rapidly end the predominance of painted scenery. Theatrical realism also began in Paris in the 1880's and the movement was so powerful that in the subsequent three decades, stage-painting traditions of the Opera virtually disappeared.

Paris was no doubt the world center of theatrical painting during virtually all of the 19th century. There were more ateliers and theatrical painters working in the city and suburbs than in most any other city in any time in history. The techniques of theatrical painting advanced greatly as a consequence. Despite their achievements these theatrical artists of the 19th century are not highly regarded by theorists of the 20th century, moreover they are perceived as the final practitioners of a dying and irrelevant art form.

A re-evaluation of their work indicates a much stronger awareness and response to innovative theatrical aesthetics of the time, particularly a desire for realism and stylistic unity. Often these impulses were hampered not by the artist's approach, but the demands of the producing directors of the Opera. The painting of this era is among the greatest ever achieved and deserves greater recognition for the techniques developed as well as the content. It is an accurate reflection of the 19th century's continuing struggle for self-knowledge, the self-conscious distancing from the past, and the embracing of new technology in the arts.

Andras Borgo (Innsbruck), Mirjam’s musical instruments in medieval Hebrew representations.

In contrast to Christian iconology, the musical aspect in illustrated books of Jewish illuminators has rarely been examined. However, this aspect gives important insights into the self-image of the medieval Jew, his world view, and the non-Jewish environment. The representations in Hebrew manuscripts often display a specific means of expression. Illustrated Jewish books depict musical instruments as tools of the holy place in the desert and of Salomon's Temple; very often instruments also appear in illustrations of Biblical events. (The Bible mentions musical instrument on 150 occasions). An important biblical character is the prophet Miriam, sister of Moses and Aaron. In the iconographic representations of her dancing after the salvation from the persecutors (Ex 15:20), she is always portrayed with a smaller or larger group of women (sometimes together with men, in accordance with the joyful Song of Moses, which precedes Miriam's dance). In some depictions Miriam is the only one with a musical instrument, in others she is portrayed with others playing as well. Although her instrument is a drum, the illustrations show not just idiophones and membranophones, but also other contemporary instruments. The presentation of the Miriam scene, in which women express their joy about a successful escape, corresponds in many ways to other depictions of dancing women, who rejoice happily and gratefully about similar situations. Examples are the return of the heroic David after his victory over Goliath and of Yiftach who successfully waged war against the Ammonites. The lecture compares Hebrew illustration of Sephardic and Ashkenazic provenance, and Christian and Byzantine manuscripts.

Raoul Camus (Queensborough Community College, City University of New York), Military musicians in English and French prints.  

Many European countries took great pride in illustrating the uniforms and ceremonies of their armies. Considering the important role that music played in communications and morale, it should not be surprising that many of these prints depicted musicians. A study of these prints can demonstrate the development of instrumentation and ensembles, and can give insight into performance practices. This paper will be limited to English and French prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Many problems arise when one tries to determine whether the musicians represented in Renaissance images are specific individuals or conventional figures. Are they portraits of real people? Do they represent particular individuals and, if so, could they be professional musicians, even famous ones? Or else are they generic, symbolic, evocative? We will consider images of lutenists, some of which have been tentatively identified with more or less famous musicians of the Renaissance.

Stewart Carter (Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem), Benedetto da Maiano’s Coronation Group for Alfonso II: Musical instruments in stone.

In the Museo Nazionale del Bargello in Florence there is a sculpture group in high relief by Benedetto da Maiano (1442-97), commemorating the coronation in 1494 of Alfonso II as King of Naples. Flanking the central figure of Alfonso are six musicians playing wind instruments. The three on the right have been incorrectly identified by art historians as trumpet players. The instruments have suffered considerable damage, but one of them is clearly a trombone. The detail on this instrument is extraordinary, showing even the ornamented ferrules on the joints, slide stays, slide barrels, and a "scalloped" motif on the garland of the bell. The instruments on the left-hand side have been identified incorrectly as flutes by art historians, yet the only complete instrument of the three is clearly a shawm.

This paper examines the instruments and musicians in Maiano’s sculpture group and places them in the context of the history of wind instruments and of Italian wind bands in the late fifteenth century. The livery worn by the six musicians offers some clues concerning the organization, disposition, and social function of Italian wind bands. The stone trombone provides us with a nearly three-dimensional representation of this instrument, showing details of construction that cannot be seen in any other artistic representation of the instrument prior to the earliest surviving trombone (1551).

Anna Cazurra (Universitat de Barcelona), The woman and the music in the Catalan Modernism: A study of the painting collection by Ramon Casas in the Teatre del Liceu of Barcelona.

The series of twelve pictures decorating the rotunda of the Círculo of the Liceu in Barcelona, the most ambitious work of the Catalan painter Ramon Casas (1866-1932), illustrates different aspects of the musical life of the Catalan bourgeoisie society of his time. In these pictures, the music is the common motive, but the true protagonist is the feminine figure not only from the bourgeoisie but from different social classes and contexts. The paper will analyze the idea of feminity, identified here with music, to determine what was the role of music in the social life and the role of woman in the musical life in Catalonia during the first decades of the twentieth century, as well as the symbolism represented on the paintings viewed in the aesthetic context of Catalan Modernism.

Anna Celenza (Michigan State University, East Lansing), Appropriating Beethoven: Musical imagery in the 1902 Klinger-Beethoven exhibition.

Founded in 1897, the Vienna Secession was a group of internationally minded painters, sculptors, and architects who resigned from the imperial city’s professional artists’ association, the Künstlerhaus, and created an independent entity with its own exhibition building and artistic ideology. Inspired by Max Klinger’s reinterpretation of Richard Wagner’s idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk, they mounted exhibitions incorporating visual art, architecture, and music, and appropriated cultural icons from Viennese history in the promotion of an ideology in line with emerging modernist culture.

The 1902 Klinger–Beethoven Exhibition was one of the Secession’s most controversial shows. Previous studies concerning the event have tended to describe it as "the apotheosis of Beethoven reception"–a final glimpse of late-Romantic ideology, but an alternate reading is also possible. The Vienna Secession did not organize their exhibition in an effort to idealize Beethoven. Instead, they appropriated the image of "idea" of Beethoven in an effort to legitimize and advance their own cultural authority. Specifically, this paper addresses two primary issues: the socio-political agenda fueling the Klinger–Beethoven Exhibition of 1902 and the ways in which musical imagery, specifically the image of Beethoven, was manipulated by the Secession artists into a modernist, ideological construct. The primary sources for this study include the art works connected with the exhibition (the numerous "Beethoven" images displayed in the exhibition and the woodcuts used in the catalogue); the official journal of the Secessionists, Vers sacrum; and caricatures and reviews of the exhibition that appeared in the Viennese press.

Mitchell Clark (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), Iconography of the Chinese seven-string zither in Japan and Korea.

The qin (also called guqin) is the classical Chinese seven-string zither, and has a long and profound history in its native country. Created, according to one traditional origin story, early in the third millennium B.C.E., it is perhaps the central musical instrument of China, found first in the hands of sage kings and philosophers, and later in those of literati artists. As a common subject in literati painting, the qin has a rich tradition of iconography within China.

The qin’s primary history is, of course, that of its use in China, yet the instrument was historically introduced to surrounding countries in East Asia, principally Japan and Korea. Due to the difficulty of the qin’s playing technique as well as its involved relationship to Chinese culture, the use of the instrument remained largely marginal in these countries. However, in Korea and, especially, Japan, the qin played an important role among those who emulated the literati arts of China. We therefore find images of qin and qin-players figuring into Japanese and Korean two-dimensional art in a variety of genres. As actual qin were rare in these countries, representations of the instrument often had a hybrid appearance, combining features of the qin with those of native zithers such as the koto (in Japan) and the komun’go (in Korea). In the present paper such visual representations (or, indeed, misrepresentations), and their sources, are examined for what they reveal about how the qin was perceived in these countries. Also explored will be the related topic of how Japanese and Korean literati artists musically viewed and interpreted the Chinese music for the qin, as well as how they created their own genres of qin music: new genres which were themselves blendings of Chinese and native materials.

The elegant manuscript lute tablature of the Augsburg patrician Philip Hainhofer, a twelve-part monument in two immense volumes (Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek: Guelf. 18.7-8, 2o), has long been recognized as a source central to the study of the late Renaissance lute. Less appreciated is the fact that, given its original conception, it could well serve as a source for the study of Renaissance art and its use, were not all but two of its more than 200 prints and drawings missing. After transcribing 650 folios of music in 1603, Hainhofer spent 1604 inserting pages embellished with "hüpsche stuckhe" featuring "musicalische instrumenta." These were large, well-known copper engravings by the most renowned German, Dutch and Italian artists of the period, nearly sixty of whom are listed in the tablature's "Register der Künstler." Modern scholars, however, have not attempted to address the meaning of Hainhofer's visual program, its loss, or the nineteenth-century traces within the manuscript which might have led to a discovery of the original prints. In this paper, I will show that previously overlooked notes from 1861 (vol. 2, part 4) place certain "cut out" works in "B," and in a "Cabinet in Braunschweig." This is the famed "Kupferstichkabinett" of the city's Anton Ulrich Museum, founded when Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Wolfenbüttel's librarian, first turned scissors to the Hainhofer Lutebook. With the expertise of the collection's curator, many of the lost engravings can now be identified, finally allowing a new, contextual evaluation of a unique pairing of music and art.

Michael Eisenberg (City University of New York Graduate Center), Reading apocalyptic iconography in a Trecento Bible.

Suzanne Fagence Cooper (Victoria & Albert Museum), The portative organ in Pre-Raphaelite painting.

Musical instruments are prominent motifs in many paintings by Pre-Raphaelite artists, especially D.G. Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones, and the portative organ was a favourite prop. It was initially used to signal an interest in early Renaissance painting, and the traditional associations with St. Cecilia. However, during the 1860s and 1870s, the symbolic value of this instrument was manipulated, so that it was increasingly found in pictures of passion or romantic longing.

The changing significance of the organ in Pre-Raphaelite painting is one pointer towards a complex use of musical imagery in the work of these artists; conventional readings could be transformed and subverted, as part of a wider attempt to challenge the expectations of the art establishment. When an apparently sacred instrument is placed at the heart of a sensual encounter, it confounds the viewer, and enables the artist to explore the themes of worship, sex and death through musical analogies.

Among musicians associated with music, the best known are King David and Saint Cecilia, but Saint Jerome, Saint Anthony, and Saint Francis are also occasionally represented in a musical context. Saint Mary Magdalene as a musician is less known, but deserves attention. She has an important role in the Gospel, especially in connection with the Passion and the Resurrection of Christ. The later tradition identifies her erroneously with a penitent pouring libation on Jesus’s feet, and even with Lazarus’s and Martha’s sister. When episodes of her previous, supposedly lascivious, life are described, she may appear dancing to the sounds of musical instruments. However, other scenes of her life may show a different relationship with music. In the church dedicated to Mary Magdalene, in the north-Italian village of Cusiano, her life is depicted in a series of frescoes attributed to Giovanni and Battista Baschenis (1475-1495), two rather naïf artists belonging to a dynasty from which later descended the well-known painter Evaristo Baschenis (1617-1677). In one of the episodes, inspired by Legenda aurea, is depicted Mary Magdalene’s arrival to Marseilles in the company of Martha and Lazarus. A trumpeter is announcing their arrival. In the last two scenes, three angels play music while other angels carry her soul to heaven.

Emile Gallé, a celebrated French contemporary of the American artist in glass Louis Comfort Tiffany, was France’s most innovative fin-de-siècle glassmaker and decorative artist. His art was motivated by a love of nature that went beyond the bounds of botanical representation. Artistic transformations of flowers and insects in glass emerged as fantastic images of a dream world. The inexpressible materialized in a glassy matrix. Qualities of abstraction – witnessed from certain perspectives in Debussy’s music – informs images and symbols through allusion in Emile Gallé’s glass works Iris (ca. 1895-1900) and Geology (ca. 1900-1904). In these respects, his artistic conceptions in glass invite comparison with Debussy’s sound world in "Et la lune descend sur le temple qui fut" from Images, set II (1908).

Florence Gétreau (Institut de Recherche sur le Patrimoine Musical en France, Paris), Romantic pianists in Paris: Musical images and musical literature.

Among famous pianists, Liszt gave rise to an impressive amount of portraits, often in contrasted registers, if we compare them with the iconography of Paganini; for Thalberg, we swim between academism and caricatures, while Chopin’s portraits are usually expressing his very personal temperament. A comparison of this iconographical documents with contemporary literature (concert reviews in musical press, writings by artists like George Sand or Liszt) unveils a specific change in the relationship between virtuosi and public at the time of "concerts spectacles".

Like its Italian model Il Decamerone, the fifteenth-century collection Les Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles contains but brief mention of bagpipes. Unlike Boccaccio’s Tindaro, however, a bagpiper plays a central role in Monseigneur Thalemas’ 75th tale, which recounts a scene from the conflict between Burgundian forces and Charles d’Orléans’ ill-fated Armagnac Party. In the story, the Burgundians prepare an ambush in a forest near Troyes, leaving a semi-fool piper to announce the arrival of the enemy. When the soldiers fall asleep, the piper is captured and sentenced to hang. Granted a last request, he plays a song on his pipes, waking his companions and saving both the day and his neck. It is not merely the sound of the pipes, however, but the content of the piper’s refrain, "Tu demoures trop, Robin," that arouses the soldiers. Although no single song with this title survives, the words invoke a centuries-old tradition of rustic and carnal symbolism relating to the bagpipes in the texts of trouvère pastorelles featuring Marion, her lover Robin with his ubiquitous "muse au grant bourdon," and his inevitable knightly rival. The adulterous implications of Marion’s cry "tu demoures trop" reveal the true sexual nature of Thalemas’ humor, and prove that the foolish piper has once again, in the words of the storyteller, "done something with hand and mouth that is more clever than he could have known." This paper traces the origins of the piper’s refrain and its carnal associations with the bagpipe in the pastorelle literature from Jean Bodel to Adam de la Halle and beyond. In the process, it examines the extent to which patterns of mimesis in onomatopoeic "dorenlot" refrains and their accompanying music can help to capture the sound of a distant pipe on an imaginary gallows.

Despite the political and religious instability of Early Modern Europe, the universal harmony is one of the main concepts to determine the vision of cosmos at that time. Every element of the Creation, from planets to man, participate in a sense of order placed over them: the order of certain numerical proportions that, since Pythagoras’ time, were found in music. This conception of the Universe also determines the vision of the State, born with the Renaissance phenomenon, and the idea of the perfect ruler. Man, a creator like God – able to reproduce the cosmic order in material constructions and intellectual lucubrations – can participate, or even take back, the effect of negative circumstances, like, for example, the war or fall of States, and restore the concord. 17th-century Spanish political treatises and espejos de príncipes contain a lot of metaphors related to music, specially to string instruments which were able to signify a multitude of diverse voices that come together in a melody.

This identification between music and good government is not new; it appears in Greek philosophers, like Plato, and in later times in Cicero, John of Salisbury and Jean Bodin. The birth of the emblematic literature, with its emphasis in the use of images, contributes to create visual representations of these topics. The Counter-Reformation ideology determines the political theory in Spain, insisting on the idea of order. The king is the manifestation of the true Universal King, God, and must reproduce within the kingdom the order imposed by Him in the cosmos, through justice. In order to express this idea, it is common to find the image of the monarch tuning the strings of a musical instrument (harp, lyre, zither).

But, when the monarch dies, we find in books about royal funeral rites an iconography related to chaos, based on the topic of the lyre which cannot produce a beautiful melody because the king has died. The whole nature appears in dissonance when the monarch leaves this world and the natural phenomena experience alterations, as happened when Christ died. The cosmos does not produce harmony anymore, but sounds transmitting a feeling of heartrending and inconsolable sadness. Other possible images are Apollo crying, unable to play his lyre, or the biblical scene referred to the musical instruments hanging from the Babylon willows. This essay will let us make a contribution to the study of the royal image during the period of Absolutism and the special relation between the king and God.

Saint Cecilia’s iconic status as patron saint of music is universal, although she is principally associated with Rome, where her basilica was founded in the fifth century. The revival of her cult in the seventeenth century resulted in renewed interest on the part of poets, musicians, and painters, many of whom were in the Roman orbit.

After reviewing her legend (based on the thirteenth-century Golden Legend and scenes from her life depicted in the early fourteenth century) and describing her relationship to music (using Thomas Connelly's study, Mourning into Joy, 1994) this paper explores some little-known connections between Saint Cecilia and Florence, where a new musical academy adopted her as patron in 1607. Under Medici rule, Florence was dominated by male saints; but with the renewed interest in the cult of Cecilia, her image began to proliferate among Florentine artists (Artemisia Gentileschi and Carlo Dolci) and specifically for female Medici patrons (the archduchesses Maria Maddalena and Vittoria della Rovere). Moreover, the paper highlights a special connection between Saint Cecilia and a young Florentine virtuosa singer, Arcangela Paladini (d.1622), who may have been the model for one of Artemisia's paintings of the virgin martyr. Finally, through the examination of these representations and verbal descriptions, the paper traces Cecilia’s transformation from virgin-in-ecstasy (established principally by Raphael's 1515 painting) to the allegorical figure (celebrated by seventeenth-century artists) of La Musica herself – from exalted saint to inspirational muse.

Trevor Herbert (Open University, UK), Selling brass instruments: The commercial imaging of brass instruments.

This paper examines the way that images of brass instruments and their players have been used in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to project ideas that will help sell them. It will also raise issues about how we should read commercial advertisements about brass instruments. Three particular avenues will be explored: (1) the general use of brass instrument imagery; (2) the imaging of brass instruments in commercial promotions and the strategy that such imaging has served; and (3) the witting and unwitting testimony that these images and their associated texts reveal about the instruments and the commercial, musical and cultural assumptions of those who made them. The paper will draw on exemplars from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and will touch on issues relating to class, gender and geographical location.

Herbert Heyde (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), Festival instruments.

The festival culture of the Renaissance and Baroque created the need for musical instruments of unusual shape to meet the decorative and thematic functions of the display. Some of these instruments appear in iconography of the court festivities, some have survived in museums. The paper discusses two instruments of The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which were probably used for court or public festivities and which are not yet known in the specialist literature. One is a lizard-shaped double reed instrument, and the other is similar to a Roman cornu with a lion head.

Mark Howell (City University of New York Graduate Center), Meanings behind the representations of pre-Columbian Mayan trumpets.

Because of the lack of extant examples, depictions provide the best evidence for the existence of pre-Hispanic Mayan end-blown trumpets (presumably made of wood). Their realistic renderings shown in the act of sound production indicate occasions for performance, such as noise-making, signaling, and accompaniment for ceremony. The instrument’s image as abstraction (in non-performance contexts) pertains to its use as a symbol of religious and political power. Depictions of trumpets with plaiting on part of their bodies are included in scenes painted on six pre-Columbian Mayan vases (three with the identical scene), and a ceramic plate in the Mayan collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Pre-Hispanic Mayan use of the imagery of the instrument as an abstraction is found in its most perfect form at the Rio Bec sites located in modern Campeche. There, disembodied trumpets are part of the stock baroque-style imagery sculpted in deep relief on the doorframes of several buildings used to store important trade goods. The instrument imagery in this context triggered the remembrance of trumpet sounds presumably used to announce the arrival of merchants delivering such goods.

The painters Romolo Liverani (Faenza 1809-Faenza 1872) and his son Tancredi (Faenza 1837-London 1889) worked for more than twenty-five years as set designers for theaters through central Italy and their sets – known from watercolors collected in about twenty-five albums kept in different libraries in Italy and the Piermont Morgan Library in New York – document the visual aspects of 19th-century Italian operas from Bellini to Verdi. Together with set designs are included landscapes and studies of nature and architecture, providing the evidence how elements of nature or architecture are reused on the stage. For example, Liverani’s design of the Hall in Macbeth’s castle designed for Verdi’s Macbeth – kept in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II in Roma – remind of the Urbino castle. It is also interesting to compare set designs conceived for different dramatic situations. Long-time experience of the Liveranis in theatres of Fano, Senigallia, Ascoli Piceno, Rimini, allowed them to form their personal iconographic language where set designs became topoi of different dramatic situations as, for example, in the set design for the Foscari's room in Verdi’s Due Foscari, which replicated the structure of the Hall in Binasco's castle designed for Bellini’s Beatrice di Tenda.

Ivory trumpets were produced in abundance on the West Coast of Africa after the arrival of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, but their prior existence in the region is evident considering iconographic sources. An image of a transverse ivory trumpet blower on a pot handle excavated from an early Akan settlement reveals distribution of the instrument north of the rainforest beyond the expanse of Portuguese influence, and Dutch illustrations and texts of elephant tusk trumpets in the Gold Coast in 1602 indicate a tradition too elaborate to have developed in one hundred years. Medieval European illustrations of ivory trumpet-blowing angels appear numerously in manuscripts of The Apocalypse as commented upon by the 8th century Spanish monk Beatus de Liébana, whose work was influenced by an earlier manuscript by Tyconius of Carthage that dated from c.380-385. While the Spanish illustrations may imply the use of the cor d’oliphant already prevalent in Europe, the influence of the earlier Tyconius manuscript may indicate ivory trumpet ensembles in Carthage as early as the 4th century. Byzantine images of horns that rather resemble tusks further indicate a brief Byzantine use of ivory trumpets after Belisarius’s defeat of the Vandals at Carthage in 534; however, the Byzantine expulsion from North Africa by the Muslims led to the Byzantines making leather-bound wooden trumpets shaped as tusks. Ambiguous uses of terms for "horns" by Greek and Latin writers in describing what might have been elephant tusks become sensible as the aforementioned iconography leads to the analysis that ivory trumpets were blown during the Punic Wars by the Carthaginians, and afterwards by the Western Romans.

Musical instruments were since the ancient times depicted in various forms of art of Central Asia. Authenticity of sources used in the study of traditional solo and ensemble performances in different historical periods was supported by literary sources, history of their formation and development. Contemporary traditional performance practice in different countries of Central Asia reveals their historical commonness and uniqueness at the same time.

A biographical sketch about the gentlemen we honor at this conference.

Exotic motifs became fashionable in the fine arts, literature, music and theater from the end of the 17th century. Among them Turqueries and Chinoiseries–which in their iconographical programs included musical motifs–splendidly furnished reception and residential chambers of Baroque palaces. Some excellent paintings from the 18th century are preserved in Slovenia, among them are The Concert of the Oriental Court (1786) by Johann Josef Karl Henrici (1737–1823), preserved at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana, and The Lute Concert (ca. 1786). Both paintings depict musical life in European aristocratic society of the second half of the 18th century, but in the details they are tuned up to exoticism. The first painting presents the allegory of music, while the second can be understood as the allegory of the sense of hearing or even the allegory of the five senses.

In the mansion Dornava, which used to be the property of important Austrian aristocrats and is considered one of the most exceptional mansions in present-day Slovenia, Chinoiseries preserved on the painted wall canvas (ca. 1750) belongs among the most distinguished European examples. It is a selection of fantastic and grotesque engravings from the 17th century, in the details comparable to the Chinese painted wall canvas produced for the European market in the second half of the 18th century. Among various motifs in the style of Italian comedia dell’ arte and the scenes of life in China, appear figures with musical instruments. The instruments seem to be "European" but being depicted with so much fantasy, it is obvious that symbolic meaning overcomes strictly musical meaning.

Jeffrey Kurtzman (Washington University, St. Louis), Information and lessons from the iconography of Venetian processions and ceremonies.

Beginning with Gentile Bellini’s famous Processione della Croce in Piazza San Marco of 1496, a sizable number of paintings, xylographs and engravings have pictured Venetian civic celebrations in considerable detail. These images often include the long silver trumpets and the pifferi of the doge that constituted two of the several official symbols of the doge’s authority, as well as other instruments, especially trumpets and drums. Most of these depictions pay great attention to detail, giving us information, sometimes unique, regarding the shape, size, role and quantity of such instruments. Yet despite their realism, such images often incorporate conventions of design and placement that are more symbolic than representational. Moreover, artists who may be painstakingly detailed in some aspects of their representations, may be careless or unknowing in their depictions of musical instruments. Nevertheless, the iconography yields data that are unavailable from documentary sources alone, and when combined with documentary information, give us a fuller picture of instruments and their usage. This paper will examine a number of images from the late 15th to the 18th century with respect to both the information they reveal and the methodological issues and problems they raise.

Bo Lawergren (Hunter College, City University of New York), Iconography of the Chinese Qin (400 BC–900 AD).

Save for a single (but famous) documented example, no images were painted on qin-zithers. This contrasts strongly with the other major type of ancient zither, the se. During its main period of use (last half of the first millennium BC) some se-zithers were crowded with images, often with shamanistic associations. From that perspective the qin looks startlingly plain. Only calligraphic inscriptions on the bottom surface provided decorative relief. But the qin often served as a focal point in Chinese landscape painting during second millennium AD. These could easily be given iconographic analyses similar, in principle, to those applied by students of second millennium European music scenes. Such explorations would provide a welcome departure from the overly Eurocentric interests that have taken hold of the field.

But I will instead draw on two less known and much earlier sources: bronze mirrors (200 BC to 900 AD) and qin tuning keys (ca. 430 - 50 BC). The former show minute scenes of the legendary qin-player Boya. First mentioned in texts from the middle of the third century BC, he became a popular figure in musical scenes a few centuries later. Whether the story was based on a real character is unknown, but centuries later he took on the same ubiquitous role in Chinese musical scenes as King David did in medieval European ones. In both cases their life acquired a mythical aura when their stories were written down long after they were said to have lived. The scenes on the bronze mirrors are minute, but close-up photography brings out details: we can study Boya’s instrument, his playing technique, his earthly and heavenly companions, and his societal position.

The tuning keys were used during the last four centuries BC. In that period the qin had closely spaced tuning pegs, and these could best be turned by special keys. The latter provide a rich iconographic source. One end was plain and had a socket that fit the tuning pegs, but the other end was decorated with complex figural scenes. Most often animals are shown in combat, but peaceful situations are not unknown. Recently the corpus of human scenes has expanded. Many of the figures are stylistically connected with figurative repertoire on Ordos bronzes. The artistic background is Central Asian, northern Chinese, Scythian, etc.

Li Youping (Research Center for Music Archaeology in China, Wuhan Conservatory of Music), Chinese musical images and music iconography.

The paper offers a survey of iconographic sources relevant for music history in China and the current state of research in music iconography.

Laurence Libin (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), Music in paintings of Jose Campeche.

Jose Campeche was not only Puerto Rico’s foremost painter of the late eighteenth century, he was also the son of a professional musician and a notable performer and music teacher in his own right. Recent exhibitions and publications have given renewed attention to his varied work, but two important portraits with musical subjects have not yet been adequately addressed. Both portraits have as their subjects women of San Juan’s highest class, shown with instruments that presumably represent their musical accomplishments. In both cases the instruments are types not normally associated with socially elite female amateurs before about 1800: one sitter is portrayed with a violin, the other with a combined organ-piano. This latter picture, privately owned in Puerto Rico, contains the only known representation of an "organized" square piano in an independent work of art, and until now it has eluded correct identification. However, it seems to be closely related to a recently located although fragmentary Spanish instrument of the same type.

More than do Campeche’s paintings on religious subjects that incidentally show instruments more symbolic than real, these two portraits raise significant questions about musical practice and the social role of music in old San Juan. Particularly in view of Spanish strictness regarding ladies’ behavior, the presence of a violin and an organized piano in this colonial context deserves explanation. Fortunately, other contemporary evidence exists from Mexico and Russia (!) to show that these instruments were not so unsuitable for upper-class women of that period as is generally assumed. For example, a similar organized piano made in St. Petersburg seems to have been owned by the Grand Duchess Maria Fyodorovna, an accomplished pianist, and to have inspired the only known music specifically composed for such an instrument (by Dmitri Bortnyansky), meant for an amateur ensemble that included other noblewomen. Campeche’s revealing portrait of the daughter of the mayor of San Juan therefore allows a link to be made between musical habits half the world apart. Further, a little-known eighteenth-century Mexican painting of a woman playing a violin indicates a more liberal attitude toward this instrument than is usually acknowledged.

Islamic definitions of zahir and batin (i.e. obvious and hidden, or seen and unseen) have found a reflection in the miniature paintings. Artists illustrating manuscripts were often conversant in music and poetry. They could embody the world of music by means of symbols thus extending the meaning of the depicted far beyond the seen on a manuscript leaf. Color and composition take on a special significance in musical iconography of the Islamic world. The paper is an attempt to unveil the hidden sense of the mystical world of music, its symbolism in representation of musical instruments and musicians in the Islamic miniatures. This study is based on an iconographical analysis of Persian miniatures of the 16th century, mainly illustrations to the Sufi literature.

Marin Marian Balasa (Institutul de etnografie si folclor Constantin Brailoiu, Bucharest), Money reading: A lesson about fatherland’s castrating terrors and motherland’s musical pleasures.

Iconography of banknotes in liberal democratic (mainly European) countries includes a variety of cultural, thus apparently apolitical, references. Frightening images and symbols on bills through which states represented themselves in the past were telling stories assuring money bearers and their users that the government could secure social order and civil satisfaction. After the shake, or even collapse of imperial structures, states could no longer communicate fear, and therefore used on banknotes either feminine icons (i.e., sensual shapes) or music (i.e., musical references), both forms of interchangeable imagination. After World War II, no democratic state in Europe would appeal to traditional symbols of virility and domination, terror or fear, warfare or brutality. Instead, they evoked kindness and attractiveness, and therefore all European states adopted culture to communicate message on their behalf and represented themselves also through musical symbols. From 2002 on, with the implementation of Euro and its generalization through the European Union, history of representation changed again. Still, the power of primitive visual forms strikes back subconsciously, indirectly and covertly.

Theater play Koštana by Borisav Stankovic (1876-1927) is a story about the Gypsy girl, Koštana, who enchanted with her singing, in the 1880s, inhabitants of the south-Serbian town Vranje. As one of the most popular komad s pevanjem (theater play that includes music numbers) in Serbian music since its premiere in 1900, it was performed in several stage productions and with music of different composers (Dragutin/Franjo Pokorni, Petar Krstic, Vojislav Kostic). Besides, the play inspired Petar Konjovic (1883-1970) to compose a remarkable opera Koštana (three versions: 1931, 1941, 1948), which was staged several times. Since the stage music story was performed in different contexts, an iconographic aspect of the semiosis (komad s pevanjem, opera) gains the status of the sign. The paper examines iconography in the functional appearances of the sign as an icon, index, and symbol.

Laura Mauri Vigevani (Università di Pavia, Dipartimento di Scienze Musicologiche e Paleografico-Filologiche, Facoltà di Musicologia di Cremona), Musical instruments in the Duchy of Milan: The Viboldone’s "sala della musica", a painted catalogue of the Sforza age.

In a little palace belonging to a humiliati domus near Milan, connected with the Sforza court, one room was before 1510 completely decorated with a fresco representing about seventy musical instruments which are although not played, arranged in twelve panels according to their performance practice. This instrumentarium of the end of the 15th century will be presented together with some other art images of the time where musical instruments are played.

Music has always played a contradictory role in the interpretation of the Cecilia legend. Because Cecilia turned away from instruments toward singing to her god, music was read both as a rejection from and a turn towards virtus which was understood in a religious way. In that respect, Raffael’s L’estasi di Santa Cecilia set an iconographic standard for the further development of the patron saint of music and for the relationship between musical and moral connotations. As iconography provides information about the interplay of social and musical behavior, especially those paintings of Cecilia are interesting which go beyond the legend and represent a general paradigm shift. In drawings and paintings from the late 16th century on, Cecilia is gradually more frequently shown as an artist, and less often depicted sitting at the organ, but rather at mundane instruments instead. At the same time she maybe seen without her halo. A changing of the norm set in: The musical practice itself becomes the quintessence of virtus leading to virtuosity in the end. Some paintings, e.g. of Artemisia Gentileschi and Bernardo Strozzi, show the connection between a virtuoso performing practice, a strengthening artist image and a culture, which develops more extrovert behavior in the course of the 16th century.

Taking the advantage of the fact that the Museo Francesco Borgogna in Vercelli displays works of art by Bernardino Lanino and the school of Gaudenzio Ferrari–artists much appreciated by Winternitz–I created several years ago a series of courses conceived as a vehicle for teaching iconography of musical instruments to students and adults of different educational levels. Such lectures–which are not yet widespread in Italian museums–in a similar way as Winternitz’s writings, demonstrate the organological characteristics of instruments, their symbolism, and the relationship between the artist and musical world.

Because of the paucity of reliable documents, historical studies in the musics of Southeast Asia have been rare. Miller and Chonpairot’s book-length article, "A History of Siamese Music Reconstructed from Western Documents, 1505-1932" (Crossroads 8-2, 1994), includes a consideration of the scarce iconographical evidence from their sources. Besides books, the most prevalent pictorial sources known in Thailand today are the many painted murals found on the walls of certain Buddhist temples both in and beyond Bangkok. The most important are those murals depicts the entire story of the Indian epic Ramayana and is found at Bangkok’s Wat Phra Kheo, the royal monastery known for its "emerald" (actually jasper) Buddha image. This paper examines both the evidence itself and the challenges to reliability based on dating, restorations, and meanings. It also considers evidence found elsewhere in Thailand and Laos.

Literary and iconographical information testify that the square drum, which consists of a piece of parchment stretched and stitched over a square frame, was a popular instrument among female minstrels and Jewish and Islamic communities in medieval Spain. Owing to the instrument’s association with women and the "infidel" Semitic cultures, its representation in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iberian bibles and cathedral portals was, depending on the context, invariably associated either with Judaism and the pagan Other or messianic symbolism. The instrument’s representation in medieval Christian iconography is the product of an earlier artistic practice of modernizing and secularizing musical instruments mentioned in the scriptures. Since the square drum was played by women and Jews it solved the problem of representing the drum that was mentioned in the Torah, an instrument played mainly by women, and called the tof (translated as tympanum in the Vulgate). Thus in places like the Pamplona Bibles, it is represented as being played during the adoration of the golden calf and during the fornication of the Moabite women, while the portal of the Cathedral of Burgos depicts it in the hands of one of the prophets of the Old testament.

Anno Mungen (Universität Mainz/Hochschule für Musik Köln), Music iconography of modernism: From the Weimar Republic to Nazi Germany and beyond.

Ernst Kreneks Opera "Jonny spielt auf" (1927) was one of the key works of the Weimar Republic and German modernism in twentieth-century music. The story of this opera focuses on an American jazz musician’s adventures in Paris and other places in Europe. Krenek’s work is one the most distinguished musical pieces reflecting the influence of Americanism and especially jazz on European culture in that period. The embodiment of this important movement in transcultural relations is the musical instrument of the saxophone and the saxophone player himself. Jazz, or what European composers of that era considered to be jazz, not only was looked at as the most authentic American musical art but was also directly linked to the image of the African-American performer. The Universal Edition, Krenek’s musical publisher in Vienna, used this symbol of jazz to represent and market his work. The piano score on the cover picks up, not surprisingly, the famous image of both the saxophone and the dark skinned player of this instrument. This image of jazz used by the publishing house as a logo of Krenek‘s work for marketing and distribution became the icon of German musical liberalism and diversity of the 1920s.

As in any other field of German society after 1933, the Nazis were devoted to the destruction of the existing variety and complexity of culture. The art exhibit of Entartete Kunst (degenerated art) was installed to ridicule and reject all art which was considered not to conform with official politics and aesthetics. This art exhibit was followed in 1938 by a parallel undertaking to expose also the "degeneration" of music. The image created for Krenek’s opera was changed accordingly: Ludwig Tersch’s poster shows a monkey playing the saxophone wearing an earring and the Jewish star – the logo of "Entartete Musik" from then on. The paper will investigate the story of an image. It will trace back its origins to the history of authentic American jazz and its reception in the Europe of the 1920s. To reveal its different functions and its reception the images of the saxophone player in 1927 and 1938 will be compared. The question to be addressed: how particular images might (and also shall) influence our perspective on music and finally also our reception of music.

Marie-Claire Mussat (Université de Rennes), From picturesque to imaginary: An image of Brittany, an iconographic reference of diversification in the French opera of the 19th century.

In spite of their reputation, it is rarely known that Le Fanal (1849) by Adolphe Adam, Le Pardon de Ploërmel (1859) by Giacomo Meyerbeer, Le Roi d’Ys (1888) by Eduard Lalo are dedicated to and take place in Brittany (French west country). Decor and costumes that have been made for these operas, and even posters for their productions, reveal the picturesque and imaginary influence of Brittany. The vogue for Brittany commenced in the 1830s with publication of engravings and lithographs showing costumes and scenes from Brittany, and was further developed through the publication of collections of folk songs and tales. This wave was also reflected in the visual presentation of editions of piano compositions or compositions for voice and piano dedicated to Brittany. Bearing titles such as "Souvenirs de Bretagne", "Noce bretonne", "Soleil de ma Bretagne", "Les Cheveux de la Bretonne", "Le Biniou", their visual appearance projected both archaic and picturesque. Thanks to the development of lithography, there had been hundreds of them printed. The paper will examine the iconography in these "pièces de genre" and the three mentioned operas, and with the support of iconographic evidence highlight how the transformation from picturesque to imaginary can bring a specific esthetical quality. Considering that very few themes in these pieces were borrowed from the folk music, their visual element appears even more important.

Nancy November (Victoria University, Wellington), Nineteenth-century visual ideologies of Haydn and the string quartet.

In the nineteenth century, the string quartet arguably became the most revered form of chamber music. Written documents on music of the time, such as treatises and criticism, reveal the dominant aesthetic ideals that have since been associated with the genre: equality, necessity, sufficiency, homogeneity, and purity of voices. Visual documents of the genre, and visual metaphors of the time, reinforce this ideology of the string quartet. I discuss the position of Haydn’s works in particular, as viewed through the ideology, considering the dominant visual metaphors that were applied to this composer in nineteenth-century criticism. These reveal a conception of his musical persona in the quartets as predominately cheery and yet distanced.

While writers of the time were certainly establishing an ideology of the string quartet, their writings also reveal alternative conceptions of the genre. Around 1800, the visual metaphors applied in discussions of the instrumental quartet, especially the figure of theatrical representation, reveal tensions concerning its expressive mode. These dialectics have arguably been collapsed in more recent perspectives on "Classical" string quartets. Iconography of the time, too, suggests the tricky mediating role of the quartet, between "public" and "private" places, and calls to question traditional quartet historiography. An oil, assumed latterly to be of eighteenth-century origin, shows an idealized "conversational" representation of chamber music-making in the ancien régime. Reinterpreted as nineteenth-century satire, it gives us pause to reflect on the visual ideologies that affect our views of earlier string quartets.

Aurelia Pesarrodona (Barcelona), Pictorial subjects in Josep Soler: Dürer and Murillo.

Josep Soler (b.1935), one of the most important contemporary Spanish composers, was in several occasions inspired by works of Albrecht Dürer (Das Marienleben and Die Grosse Passion) and Bartolomé Murillo (the opera Murillo). In the case of Dürer, Soler did not directly replicate the paintings, but rather followed the manner of expressing the anguish, a concept constantly present in composer’s thought. On the other hand, in the case of Murillo, in order to show his ideal of an artist as an intermediary between God and the man, Soler used Rilke’s psychodrama describing the painter to show his ideal of artist.

Stewart Pollens (The Metropolitan Museum of Art), The Golden Harpsichord of Michele Todini: Evolving perspectives.

Constructed in Rome around 1670, Michele Todini’s "Golden Harpsichord" was acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1902 as part of the Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments. In 1956, shortly after discovering a terracotta bozzetto for the elaborately carved outer case of this instrument, Winternitz wrote extensively about the mythological subject of the harpsichord’s case carving ("The Golden Harpsichord and Todini’s Galleria Armonica," The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; republished in 1967 and 1979 in Musical Instruments and Their Symbolism in Western Art).

In 1990, the author published a technical study of this instrument ("Michele Todini’s Golden Harpsichord: An Examination of the Machine of Galatea and Polyphemus," Metropolitan Museum Journal), which compared Todini’s own description of the harpsichord (Dichiaratione della galleria armonica eretta in Roma de M. Todini Piemontese di Saluzzo, nella sua habitazione, posta all’Arco della Ciambella; Rome 1676) with the instrument itself. The author discovered numerous inconsistencies suggesting that the harpsichord may never have been completed or that Todini’s published account was fanciful.

In 2002, Patrizio Barbieri published new archival discoveries about Todini’s Golden Harpsichord ("Michele Todini’s galleria armonica: its hitherto unknown history," Early Music). Barbieri uncovered an early inventory and bills submitted by the carver and gilder who made the instrument’s outer case. The description of the free-standing figure of Galatea found in these documents differs somewhat from the figure preserved with the harpsichord as well as the terracotto bozzetto discovered by Winternitz. Barbieri concluded that the figure of Galatea at the Metropolitan Museum is not original and that the bozzetto preserved in the Museo Strumenti Musicali in Rome is not a preliminary model but a later production. Barbieri also presented documents regarding Todini’s creditors, who took possession of the Golden Harpsichord and other instruments in lieu of unpaid depts. Barbieri’s conclusions regarding the figure of Galatea will be evaluated in view of the physical evidence provided by the figure and the rest of the instrument.

To be sure, diligent physical investigation and archival sleuthing are providing fascinating insights into Todini’s life and work. Devoid of the seamy details, Winternitz’s original 1956 article presents a more flattering account, though one that enables us to appreciate Todini’s inventiveness and intent.

Katherine Powers (California State University, Fullerton), Music-making angels in Italian Renaissance painting: Symbolism and reality.

Emanual Winternitz rightly observed that angel musicians constitute the largest category of musicians in art of the Renaissance. Iconic Madonna Enthroned altarpieces and Madonna and Child devotional paintings as well as narrative Marian scenes of the Nativity, Assumption, and Coronation depict angels playing lutes, fiddles, lire da braccio, and other instruments, all with physical realism. Such authenticity years ago inspired the question, are the angels depicting true performance practice or are they performing "celestial" music? I have catalogued and studied angel musicians in Madonna subjects from the high Renaissance (ca.1450 to 1530) and have come to believe that, in certain subjects, the angel musicians are also depicting realistic performance practice. The contemporary viewer would recognize not only the angels’ musical instruments and ensembles, but also their repertoire and purpose. This study examines the instrument and performance practice of the angel musician in the Madonna Enthroned paintings of the Veneto, relating their performance to the viewer’s reference point, to musical practice in northern Italy, and to music as the viewer recognized it and understood it.

Debra Pring (Goldsmiths College, University of London), Love, lust and betrayal: The recorder as symbol in the visual arts and music.

The recorder has an illustrious history of both performance and representation in all the arts. One of the richest veins of research for a musicologist / performer is the use of the recorder as a symbol of sacred and profane love, of marriage – the ultimate harmony – and of excess of these passions. Examples abound from Classical art to the present day, and cataloguing and some further research has been commenced by a number of writers. The focus of the majority of work to date, however, has been either on visual or auditory symbolism, i.e. symbolism in painting, or in music. It is the intention of this paper to bring together the visual and the audible symbolism of the recorder, focusing on artistic output and repertoire from the late Renaissance through the Baroque period.

Mary Rasmussen (Durham, New Hampshire), Music, astrology, and the power of women: Some aspects of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Dutch and Flemish music iconography.

An iconographic analysis of Johannes Sadeler’s engraving, Crapula et lascivia (after Maarten de Vos); David Vinckboons’s painting Garden party; and Bartholomeus de Momper’s engraving, The parable of the Prodigal Son (after Hans Bol) will provide the framework for a demonstration of the symbolism associated with the planets Venus and Moon and their children in the context of power of women over hapless males.

José Antonio Robles Cahero (Centro Nacional de Investigación, Documentación e Información Musical, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, México), "Sones", "jarabes" and "fandangos": Images of popular dance and music in the visual narratives of 19th-century Mexican music iconography.

Cristina Santarelli (Istituto per i Beni Musicali in Piemonte, Turin), Images of King David in manuscripts from Piedmontese libraries

Presented will be some unpublished manuscript Bibles, Psalters, and Books of Hours preserved in libraries of Piedmont, and explained the symbolism of King David in the contexts of Psalm 1, Psalm 80, Psalm 97, Tree of Jesse, Penitential Psalms).

María Elena Santos (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), Musical iconography in paintings of Cristobal de Villalpando.

Cristobal de Villalpando (ca. 1649–1714) – a Mexican painter of the New Spain Viceroyal Period – used angels in his paintings in three different ways: as decoration in cathedrals´ choirs; as the singing choir which could be compared to angels in heaven; and to produce visual tensions by defining the space between the real world and Heaven.During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, cathedrals of New Spain were the main ecclesiastic institutions promoting Baroque culture, including music. Solemn ceremonies held in the cathedrals were always accompanied by new musical compositions, which were meant to achieve a pompous performance employing large instrumental ensembles and two or more choirs alternating. Such performances in cathedrals provided Cristobal de Villalpando with ideas for depicting the Glory which included angel musicians placed in the limitless space between the world and Heaven. Angel musicians have human appearances: they play real instruments which could have been seen during liturgical ceremonies held in cathedrals. The evidence is provided by two monumental paintings: a dome in the Chapel of the Kings, of Puebla cathedral, and the Virgen del Apocalipsis, of Mexico City cathedral.

H. Colin Slim (University of California, Irvine), Identifying Joseph Weber's singer: Pinxit 1839.

Barry Brook's elegant and moving dedication of the first volume of Imago Musicae (1983) to Emanuel Winternitz (which sadly also became the great scholar's obituary) requires no modification, save in one respect. Winternitz's astonishing breadth of interests in ancient and Renaissance art and in music and musical instruments of all periods also extended to beautiful women. Thus a signed and dated German portrait from the early 19th century of a generously figured woman which has just come to light after years of private ownership in the U.S.A. seems particularly apt for a paper devoted to Winternitz's memory because the portrait also features unmistakable references to the ancient world, plus a musical inscription by the most renowned composer of 19th-centry opera classicism, a composer about whom Winternitz himself once wrote.

Several aspects of this portrait, its creator, and its subject, cry for investigation: province; the career and oeuvre of its rather obscure painter including his possible interests in music; the source of the musical notation in his portrait; and, above all, of course, a plausible identification of the portrait's subject who is not named. Knowledge of the music inscribed by the painter greatly assists in refining any search for his subject and limits it to about four women. This search must then be further refined by means of contemporaneous images of the possible subjects. But here must suffice daguerreotypes, paintings, drawings, lithographs, sketches and other visual media even though such images can only provide useful, rather than conclusive, identification of the portrait's subject. Finally, having made a tentative identification and with some knowledge of her career, the investigation can more confidently explore the painter's treatment of his subject, from which several observations can be ventured about her around the time he executed the portrait.

This presentation explores the way in which the Swiss painter Jakob Weder (1906–1990) conceived his Farbsymphonien, 51 abstract paintings based on music by 18th- and 19th-century composers (Gluck, Händel, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms), and with a special attention for scores of J.S. Bach.

Bach’s influence in modern painting and music has been continuous since the end of the 19th century. Artists like Kadinsky, Kupka, Delaunay, Van Doesburg, and Klee – most of them protagonists of non-figurative painting – found in his scores a model and inspiration, seeking first of all to transpose onto canvas his compositional and structural devices.

Weder’s paintings remain within this trend. His Farbsymphonien were a lifelong project, spanning over 40 years of theoretical research and chemical experiments with colors and light. Many years of patient effort resulted in this objective, material basis; he developed color and grey scales based upon visual mixing proportions, which can be divided into an almost limitless number of equidistantly spaced – "tempered" – intervals. Weder’s aim was to formulate objective statements about colors, based on relationships which could be represented mathematically. He created a "tempered tuning" for colors analogous to that in music, resulting in internal relationships which form the material basis of the painter’s work. His investigations in the field of color gave a rational basis to the creative process, which followed thematic ideas, subjective and psychological interpretations, and musical models.

Bach’s music brought to Weder the first idea for the conception of the well-tempered clavier of color shades, a tool he used later for the transposition of the musical score on the canvas. In the last decade of his life, it was on this "keyboard of colors" that Weder developed the major group of paintings, his Farbsymphonien. Although founded on musical scores – almost half of them based on works of J.S. Bach – they are not just inspired by music, indeed they are not even metaphorical illustrations of musical works. Rather they trace an original path in the relationship between painting and music. "I have long wanted to create symphonies with colors, just as it is done in music with sounds." (Weder, 1985)

What is the secret of Weder’s Color Symphonies? The aim of this paper is to go beyond the visible aspects of Weder’s painting in order to understand the invisible side of the pictures. The viewer may not be aware of it, but beyond the artistic investigations, there is also a search for universal laws and for order behind the painter’s choices and decisions. Just as it is in Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier.

Robert Starner (Albuquerque, New Mexico), Two Mexican bajones: Double reed iconography in rural Michoacán.

Murals from the adjacent Purépeche Indian villages of Cocucho and Nurio offer two unique examples of bajón iconography from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The sotocoros of both churches divide into rectangles that enclose figures of angelic musicians and heliographic representations. The murals in Nurio, dating from 1639, were possible painted by a disciple of Baltasar de Echave Orio (d.1623) and have a formal, mannerist vocabulary unique to Michoacán. They tell a didactic story of Saint Augustine and Saint Mary Magdalene, two great sinners redeemed by their faith. Supporting this didactic story are eleven angelic musicians comprising an orchestra that forms two opposing choirs of wind and string players mixed with singers. Cocucho’s murals from the 1760’s have a singular folk-baroque quality. Copied on the pattern established in Nurio, we see six archangel musicians forming two choirs of wind and string players lead by the bajonista. The murals were possible a gift from Don Fr. José Cayetano Vital Moctezuma, local encomendero for the area, Bishop of Chiapas and a direct descendent of Emperor Moctezuma. The archangels are in militaristic garb, with parallels to South American counter-reformation arcabuceros found in neohispanic art, flanking a center panel that portrays the dance of Santiago de Matamoros defeating the Moors at the battle of Clavejo and performed yearly in the village. The Santiago iconography sends a complex message that juxtaposes the Spanish counter-reformation against the anti-cleric, anti-Spanish sentiments of the indigenous Purépeche for whom Santiago was a symbol of cultural resistance against the encroaching Spanish-speaking mestizo culture. These murals provide us with pictures of the musical life of two small rural Mexican communities raising questions of bajón performance practice, organology, the musicians, and how the indigenous people of that time viewed European concepts of music, religion, and politics.

The Ionian mode was the easiest to finger on a medieval three-stringed fiddle: the performer’s left hand takes a natural position on the string with the distance between the first and the second fingers equal to one tone, and between the second and the third fingers equal to half tone. In a drawing discovered by K. Gerz dating to the fifth century A.D. (Bruxelles, Bibliothèque Royale Albert I^er , Ms 10074) one can see a siren playing a three-stringed chordophone pizzicato. The fingers of her left hand are on the middle string in tetrachord position of the Ionian mode. The lower string is the siren plucking with her right forefinger. Thus, when playing the octave scale in fourth/fifth pitch structure c-g-c¹ of the three-stringed fiddle, it is evident the fingering advantage of the two-stringed rebec of fifth structure c-g. The third finger might be used to double the height of the upper fiddle string, which disclaims the interval structure of its pitch. A fragment of an instrumental folk tune from an ancient manuscript in W.S. Rockstroe’s transcription corresponds completely to the texture-fingering stereotype of the siren in the picture found by K. Gerz.

Björn R. Tammen (Vienna), The sacred and the profane: Music in the margins of late medieval books of hours.

When Emanuel Winternitz published in 1958 and 1965 respectively his articles Bagpipes for the Lord and Musicians and Musical Instruments in the Hours of Charles the Noble, both musical iconography and art historical interest in the margins of medieval art were still in its infancy. Although Lillian M.C. Randall catalogued the Images in the Margins of Gothic Manuscripts in her magisterial study (1966), it was not before the 1990s that art historians dealt with marginalia on more than a topical level and developed a refined contextual approach (e.g., Michael Camille, Image on the Edge: The margins of medieval art, 1992). My paper, founded upon a research project Musical Imagery in the Illuminated Manuscripts of the National Library at Vienna deals with the multiple functions of music-pictorial marginalia in some of the most splendid French and Flemish Livres d’heures of the 15th century (among others, cod. 1855, cod. 1856, cod. 1857). It will emerge that the sacred and the profane are not as opposed as Winternitz supposed, but intertwined in multifarious ways.

Susan E. Thompson (Yale University Collection of Musical Instruments, New Haven), Hautboists in service to the crown and state as depicted in Dutch etchings and engravings, 1672-1702.

Military histories and manuals of the late seventeenth century contain numerous depictions of trumpeters, kettledrummers, and tambourists but surprisingly few of hautboists, despite their having been employed in many sovereigns' households and armies. Because the iconographic evidence is scant, historians have tended to rely on manuscript or printed source material in establishing the roles assumed by double reed players of this period (when the term 'Hautboists' collectively referred to players of the shawm, hautbois, dulcian, or bassoon). Those who served directly under a monarch or member of the aristocracy provided music for elegant entertainment and ceremonious occasions, whereas those attached to regiments in the field supplied music for daily drills and exercises and for camplife amusement decidedly less genteel. This presentation addresses the function, dress, and instruments of hautboists in both courtly and military contexts through depictions that heretofore have not been cited or discussed in the music-organological literature. It also seeks to explain why double reed players as a group do not seem to have captured the late-seventeenth-century artist's eye.

Although many figures of musical instruments are visible on armor, old portals, and pilaster strips, this subject has neither been sufficiently highlighted in the vast scholarship related to history of armor nor in musical iconography. The number of iconographical sources (paintings, engravings, frescoes) from the period when armor was decorated is rather limited and the iconographical repertoire may be significantly enriched if we include in it also decorated armors.

Instructions for armor makers about representing allegorical figures with musical instruments could be found in treatises on painting published around the end of the 16th century. They include directions for painters about choosing the objects which were supposed to be integrated into the decoration of whichever kind of artifacts – from buildings to tools. A few of them provide indications regarding the use of representations of musical instruments. The most usual instrument types engraved on armor will be outlined and a brief catalogue of represented figures will be presented.

Patrick Tröster (Historisches Museum Basel, Musikinstrumenten-Sammlung), Which kind of trumpet played the „menstrel de trompette" in Late Gothic alta bands?

Iconographical evidence of the late-Gothic alta bands indicate that a single natural trumpet could have been played together with shawms since around 1370/80. Early-Renaissance artworks, from about 1420/30, show that this instrument had been substituted by a slide trumpet. Archival references indicate that a single trumpet player performing together with loud minstrels could be traced back at least until 1380. The question is what kind of trumpet used this "menstrel de trompette" before the invention of the slide trumpet?

Mario Valente (UCLA Medical School), Disderi and the carte de visite photographs of Verdi.

André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri was born in Paris on 28 March 1819 to a cloth merchant. He decided not to follow in his father’s footsteps but instead studies draftsmanship without much success. Between 1837 and 1840 he got a position as an actor at the Théâtre de Grenelle. The theater underwent many financial problems and his acting career was no more successful than his artistic career. However, both of these ventures were to have an influence on his career as a photographer. For a short period of time he moved to Brest and began to make daguerrotypes. The political unrest leading to the rise in power of Napoleon III led to economic and social changes and he then moved to Paris. In November 1854 he patented the carte de visite photograph. Initially the photographs were pasted on the back of the cartes de visite, however, no such examples have ever been located. The earliest carte de visite photographs date from about 1858 and are mounted on a cardboard backing which gives information about the photographer, his studio and whatever medals his work has earned. From 1858 until about 1870 the carte de visite photograph became the main medium for portraits. By 1870 the cabinet photograph took over and this coupled with the chaos resulting from the Franco-Prussian war caused major financial upheavals and Disdéri went bankrupt. He tried to recover but never succeeded. For a short period of time he went to Nice but came back to Paris and died destitute in Saint Anne’s Hospital in Paris in 1889. Disdéri’s photographs were made on a collodion plate in sets of six, eight, or ten. The photographs could be then cut and mounted. He himself wrote several books describing the process. Various cartes de visite of Verdi will be presented.

This paper studies the few textual and many visual sources of the ancient Greek myth of Marsyas from a combined musicological and mythological point of view. The aim is double: (a) to demonstrate the relative autonomy and mutual complementarity of visual and textual sources; and (b) to evaluate the position of mythological sources in music history and of musical sources in the history of religion. Music history typically studies "historical" sources and it is traditionally mainly concerned with musical practice, instrumentation, notation, theory and philosophy, i.e. musical "art". Ancient Greek culture produced the first literary texts and theoretical treatises on music – the first "historical" music. But its mousikè technè exceeded our historical concept of music. It wasn’t mere tonal art but a complex activity also comprising song and dance. It was no distinguished form of art but a fundamental socio-cultural practice also fully embedded in religious life. Greek music history thus cannot restrict itself to the traditional "historical" study of music, to the canonical "historical" sources, nor to the purely "historical" study of musical myths. Myths indeed root in historical reality, but they are essentially religious realities. The musical myths reflected and shaped socio-religious conceptions, ideas, values and atti